View source for Manchuria (Country of the Everwhite Mountain)

{{Infobox country
|conventional_long_name = Republic of Manchuria
|native_name = Манжь Дасачара Гурун<br />{{MongolUnicode|ᠠᠨᠵᡠ}} {{MongolUnicode|ᡤᡠᠨᡥᡝ}} {{MongolUnicode|ᡤᡠᡵᡠᠨ}}
|common_name = Manchuria
|image_flag = File:Flag_of_Manchuria_(Country_of_the_Everwhite_Mountain).png
|image_coat = File:Manchuria_coat_of_arms.png
|symbol_type = Emblem
|image_map = File:Manchuria map projection.png
|image_map_size = 239px
|national_motto =
|national_anthem = {{unbulleted list |{{W|National Anthem of Manchukuo|Манжу Гурун-и Учун}}<br />{{transl|mnc|''Manju Gurun-i Ucun''}}<br />{{small|''National anthem of Manchuria''}}}}{{parabr}}[[File:Manchukuo_National_Anthem_1933-1942_Chinese_Korean.ogg|233px]]</center>
|official_languages = {{W|Manchu language|Manchu}}, {{W|Northeastern Mandarin|Guanhua}}
|regional_languages = {{W|Russian language|Russian}}, {{W|Korean language|Korean}}, {{W|Daur language|Daur}}, {{W|Evenki language|Evenki}}, {{W|Orochon language|Orochon}}, {{W|Nanai language|Nanai}}, {{W|Japanese language|Japanese}},  {{W|Mongolian language|Mongolian}}
|languages_type = {{W|Official script}}s
|languages = {{W|Xibe language|Manchu Cyrillic}}<br />{{W|Manchu script}}
|ethnic_groups =
 {{unbulleted list
  | 44% {{W|Manchus}}
  | 38% {{W|Chinese|Nikan}}
  |  9% {{W|Koreans}}
  |  3% {{W|Mongols}}
  |  2% {{W|Russians}}
  |1.7% {{W|Japanese}}
  |2.3% {{W|others}}
 }}
|ethnic_groups_year = 2010
|demonym = {{hlist |{{W|Manchu}} |Manchurian{{Ref label|b|b}} }}
|capital = [[Cacon]]{{Ref label|a|a}}
|coordinates = 
|largest_city = {{W|Mukden}}
|government_type = {{nowrap|{{W|Unitary state|Unitary}} {{W|Semi-presidential system|parliamentary}} {{W|Republic}}}}
|leader_title1 = {{W|President of Manchuria|President}}
|leader_name1 = {{W|Bai Chunli|Baigia Dorolon}}
|leader_title2 = {{W|Prime Minister of Manchuria|Prime Minister}}
|leader_name2 = {{W|:zh:齐续春|Citela Sucun}}
|legislature = {{W|National Assembly}}
| upper_house            = {{W|Senate}}
| lower_house            = {{W|House of Representatives}}
|area_rank = 18th
|area_km2 = 78,203,000
|area_sq_mi = <!-- Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]] -->
|percent_water = 5.4
|population_estimate =121,163,770
|population_estimate_year = 2017
|population_estimate_rank = 134th
|population_density_km2 = 96.1
|population_density_sq_mi = 248.9
|population_density_rank = 67th
|GDP_PPP_year = 2019
|GDP_PPP = $4.50 trillion
|GDP_PPP_rank =
|GDP_PPP_per_capita = $37,084
|GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank =
|GDP_nominal = $4.06 trillion
|GDP_nominal_year = 2019
|GDP_nominal_per_capita = $33,493
|Gini_year = 2013
|Gini_change =  <!-- increase/decrease/steady -->
|Gini = 36.5 <!-- number only -->
|Gini_rank =
|HDI_year = 2015
|HDI_change = increase <!-- increase/decrease/steady -->
|HDI = 0.765 <!-- number only, between 0 and 1 -->
|HDI_ref =
|HDI_rank = 
|sovereignty_type = {{W|History of Manchuria|Formation}}
|established_event1 = {{W|Jurchen Empire}}
|established_date1 = formed 1115
|established_event2 = {{W|Qing Empire}}
|established_date2 = formed 1636
|established_event3 = {{W|Manchukuo}}
|established_date3 = 1932
|established_event4 = [[People's Republic of Manchuria (Country of the Everwhite Mountain)|People's Republic of Manchuria]] was established
|established_date4 = February 1, 1946
|established_event5 = Sorghum Revolution
|established_date5 = October 3, 1990
|established_event6 = {{W|Current Constitution|Constitution}}
|established_date6 = March 1, 1991
|currency = Muheren
|currency_code = MNJ
|time_zone = <!-- {{W|Asia/Seoul||KST}} (Manchurian Standard Time) -->
|utc_offset = +9
|time_zone_DST =
|utc_offset_DST = 
|date_format = yyyy.mm.dd ({{W|Common Era|CE}})
|drives_on = {{W|Right- and left-hand traffic#Right-hand traffic|right}}
|calling_code = {{W|+83}}
|iso3166code = MJ
|cctld = {{W|.mj}}, {{W|.ман}}
|footnote_a = {{Note|a}} Chinese name is "Changchun"
}}


'''Manchuria''' /mæŋˈtʃuːriə/ ({{IPAc-en|audio=En-us-Mongolia.ogg}} ({{MongolUnicode|ᠠᠨᠵᡠ}} {{MongolUnicode|ᡬᡠᡵᡠᠨ}} "Manzh° Dasachara Gurun" in Manchu; Манжь Дасачара Гурун in Manchu Cyrillic) is a sovereign state in {{W|East Asia}}. It borders {{W|Russia}} to the north, {{W|Mongolia}} to the west, {{W|China}} to the southwest, and {{W|Korea}} in the southeast. Its capital is [[Cacon]], and its former capital {{W|Mukden}} is the largest city. Its population of 121,204,300 is one of the largest on earth.

While Manchuria was dominated by Korean and Chinese dynasties, they were mostly dominated by {{W|Tungusic}} peoples such as the {{W|Jurchens}}. The region was the center of the {{W|Jin Dynasty}} from 1125 to 1234, when it was conquered by the {{W|Mongol Empire}} and its {{W|Yuan Dynasty}}. Southern Manchuria fell under Ming rule, but the northern parts remained outside Chinese control. The Jianzhou Jurchen chieftain {{W|Nurhaci}} later took over the Jurchen tribes in the 1600s, culminating in the {{W|Qing Dynasty}} founded by {{W|Hong Taiji|Hung Taiji}} in 1636, and later conquering China by 1644. Intrigues by Russia led to the loss of Outer Manchuria by 1860, with Manchuria coming under Russian influence by the late 19th century. The southern part was also later influenced by Japan by the early 1900s. By 1911, the Qing Dynasty fell and Manchuria was liberated by the forces of Wang Cenbing.<ref name=GSE>[http://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/Fengtien+Clique Fengtien Clique]; ''{{W|Great Soviet Encyclopedia}}'', 3rd Edition (1970-1979).</ref>Manchuria is considered the homeland of the Manchu people.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Ancient State of Puyŏ in Northeast Asia: Archaeology and Historical Memory|last=Byington|first=Mark E.|publisher=Harvard University Asia Center|year=2016|isbn=978-0-674-73719-8|location=Cambridge (Massachusetts) and London|pages=11, 13}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/?id=6NPMDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA2 |title=Ethnic Fermented Foods and Alcoholic Beverages of Asia|last=Tamang|first=Jyoti Prakash|date=2016-08-05|publisher=Springer|isbn=9788132228004|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/?id=u7-SCzkMZgAC&pg=PA81 |title=Haan (han, Han) of Minjung Theology and Han (han, Han) of Han Philosophy: In the Paradigm of Process Philisophy and Metaphysics of Relatedness|last=Son|first=Chang-Hee|date=2000|publisher=University Press of America|isbn=9780761818601|language=en}}</ref>Japan's influence increased by 1932, later establishing {{W|Manchukuo}} as a state allied with Japan, with the last emperor of Qing and China, {{W|Pu Yi}} being installed as leader. Hostility by anti-Japanese forces in Manchuria intensified, and by the end of World War II, a pro-Communist parallel government took over most parts of Manchuria, co-operating with coup-plotters in {{W|Changchun|Xinjing}} and the Soviet and Mongolian invaders. A plebiscite held in October 1945 confirmed the independence of the new People's Republic of Manchuria.

An intensive {{W|Desinicization}} program was enacted, imposing the Manchu language on the majority Chinese population with some degree of success<ref>{{harvnb|Writing Group of Manchu Brief History|2009|pp=206–207}}</ref>, and the country provided support during the {{W|Korean War}}. During the 1960s, disagreements with Mao Zedong and Jogia Sangsi over the latter's refusal to join the People's Republic were cited as a reason for the {{W|Sino-Soviet Split}}. In response for Chinese nuclear tests, Manchuria developed its own nuclear weapons, which it maintains to this day. After the fall of communism in 1991, Manchuria reformed its economy from a socialist economy to a mixed-market economy.

Although having the 15th largest economy in the world, the country has a lower GDP per capita compared to neighbors, compounded with government controversies. The economy is bolstered by new conglomerates that expanded after the fall of communism in Manchuria, propelling its rather high growth. It maintains amicable relations with most of its neighboring countries, and is a member of the United Nations, the G-20, the World Trade Organization, the Shanghai Co-Operation Organization, the World Bank, the Asian International Investment Bank, and the Asian Development Bank.

==Etymology==

The word Manchuria comes from the word ''Manju'', decreed by Hung Taiji in 1636 to replace Jurchen, which was seen as derogatory.<ref name="Wilkinson2000">{{cite book|author=Endymion Porter Wilkinson|title=Chinese History: A Manual|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ERnrQq0bsPYC&pg=PA728#v=onepage&q&f=false|year=2000|publisher=Harvard Univ Asia Center|isbn=978-0-674-00249-4|page=728}}</ref>.<ref>{{harvnb|Agui|1988|p=2}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |script-title=zh:《满洲名称之种种推测》 |last1=Feng |first1=Jiasheng (冯家升) |journal=《东方杂志》 [Dongfang Magazine] |volume=30 |issue=17 |trans-title=Many Kinds of Conjecture of the Name "Manju"}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |script-title=zh:《满洲名称考述》 |last1=Teng |first1=Shaojian (滕绍箴) |journal=《民族研究》 [Ethnicities Research] |date=April 1996 |pages=70–77 |trans-title=Textual Research of the Name "Manju"}}</ref><ref>[https://www.jstor.org/stable/3217747?seq=2 Norman 2003], p. 484.</ref> It may have come from the Buddhist deity Manjusri, or from a compound word of "Man" was from the word "mangga" ({{ManchuSibeUnicode|lang=mnc|ᠮᠠᠩᡤᠠ}}) which means strong and "ju" ({{ManchuSibeUnicode|lang=mnc|ᠵᡠ}}); this is interpreted to mean "intrepid arrow".<ref>{{cite journal |script-title=zh:《族称Manju词源探析》|trans-title=The Research of Ethnic Name "Manju"'s Origin |journal=《满语研究》 [Manchu Language Research] |year=2009 |issue=1}}<!--original citation: 《族称Manju词源探析》，长山，刊载于《满语研究》2009年第01期 (Changshan (2009), ''The Research of Ethnic Name "Manju"'s Origin'', Manchu Language Research, the 1st edition)--></ref>

The current English name of Manchuria is rooted in controversy. It was first used by Japanese and Western geographers during the 18th and 19th centuries. <ref>E.g. [https://books.google.com/books?id=dJo8AAAAIAAJ Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society, Volumes 11–12], 1867, p. 162</ref> The Manchus reportedly refer to the territory as the Three Eastern Provinces (Dergi Ilan Golo).<ref>{{harvnb |Giles|1912|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=yCqMneCHMJ4C&pg=PA8 8]}}.</ref><ref name=japanese1>[https://books.google.com/books?id=LbmP_1KIQ_8C&pg=PA159#v=onepage&q&f=false]{{harvnb |Pozzi|2006|p=159}}.</ref><ref name=japanese2>[https://books.google.com/books?id=LbmP_1KIQ_8C&pg=PA167#v=onepage&q&f=false]{{harvnb |Pozzi|2006|p=167}}.</ref>  Also, the Qing Dynasty consistently refer to their territory as merely China. It was during and after World War II that the word Manchuria gained currency, and was accepted as the normal English name of the country. Current Manchurian histography refers to Qing as "Manchurian China", and also refer to the Yuan Dynasty as "Mongolian China".

A few Western academics suggested renaming the English name of the country due to its associations with imperialism; in China, Manchuria is always referred to as the "Manchu Republic" to avoid the usage of the word Manchukuo in Chinese.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-25411700|title=Seven decades of bitterness|date=2014-02-13|work=BBC News|access-date=2020-02-11|language=en-GB}}</ref>

==History==

:''Main article: {{wpl|History of Manchuria}}''

===Early History===

Ancient Manchuria had been home for several ethnic groups such as the {{W|Evenki}}, the {{W|Nanai}}, the {{W|Ulchs}}, the {{W|Khitans}}, and the {{W|Jurchens}}. During various points in Manchu history, several Chinese dynasties controlled portions of Manchuria, usually in the coasts, and the Chinese also set up tributary relations with the tribes. The Korean kingdoms of Goguryeo, {{W|Gojoseon}}, and {{W|Buyeo}} also controlled parts of Manchuria. Finnish scientist {{W|Juha Janhunen}} also claimed that the Korean kingdoms might have substantial Tungusic-speaking minorities and even have an Tungusic elite. <ref>The Cambridge History of China, Vol. 03: "Sui and T'ang China, 589–906, Part 1," at 32, 33.</ref>

Within the 10th to 11th century, the Khitans of Inner Mongolia and Manchuria forged a state called the {{W|Liao}}, controlling Northern China and Manchuria, forcing the ancestors of the Jurchens into tributary status. The Khitan empire were the first state to control the entire modern region of Manchuria.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=eTFMPO5NdKgC&pg=PA227&lpg=PA227&dq=Ruins+of+Identity:+Ethnogenesis+in+the+Japanese+Islands+control+all+of+manchuria&source=bl&ots=SyoHDbdv9i&sig=SK2vY6jSgM-GMEEaaYew3imVkSs&hl=mn&sa=X&ei=gE3TVKrjHMnmoATuvoHIBQ&ved=0CBIQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false Ruins of Identity: Ethnogenesis in the Japanese Islands By Mark Hudson]</ref><ref>Ledyard, 1983, 323</ref>

[[File:Yuan dynasty and Manchuria.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The {{W|Mongol Empire|Mongol}} {{W|Yuan dynasty|Yuan}} {{W|provinces of the Yuan Empire|province}} of {{W|Liaoyang}} (Liyoo-a); the province included northern {{W|Korea}}]]
[[File:Qing Empire circa 1820 EN.svg|thumb|250px|The Manchu {{W|Manchuria under Qing rule|Qing dynasty}} circa 1820. Manchuria is the homeland of the {{W|Jurchens}} and later {{W|Manchus}}.]]

===Medieval History===


[[File:Ussuriysk-Stone-Tortoise-S-3542.jpg|thumb|left|250px|A 12th-century {{W|Jin dynasty (1115–1234)|Jurchen}} stone tortoise in today's {{W|Ussuriysk}}]]

By the early 12th century, the Jurchens, one of the tributary peoples of the Khitans rebelled against Liao rule and replaced them with the Jin Dynasty. Numerous {{W|Jurchen_campaigns_against_the_Song_dynasty|campaigns against the Song Chinese}} enabled the Jurchen to capture territory in northern China. The Jurchens were then conquered in turn by the Mongolian Yuan Dynasty. During Mongolian rule, Manchuria was named as Liaoyang along with Northern Korea.<ref>Patricia Ann Berger – Empire of emptiness: {{W|Buddhist}} art and political authority in Qing China, p.25</ref>In 1375, {{W|Naghachu}}, a Mongolian Yuan official in Liaoyang, attempted to conquer the rest of the Ming-held Liaodong peninsula, but the {{W|Ming campaign against the Uriankhai|Ming defeated his forces}} and surrendered. The Ming Emperor {{W|Yongle}} consolidated control of the Manchurian lands, creating the {{W|Nurgan Regional Military Commission}}.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Crossley |first1=Pamela Kyle |title=A Translucent Mirror: History and Identity in Qing Imperial Ideology |date=2002 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0520234246 |page=196 |edition=illustrated, reprint |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hbEwDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA196}}</ref>

Chafing from Ming control, the {{W|Jianzhou Jurchens}} under {{W|Nurhaci}} started to consolidate their control of the region starting in the 1580s. They had to contend with the {{W|Evenki}}-{{W|Daur}} alliance led by {{W|Bombogor}}, finally killing him in 1640 and incorporating his remaining troops to the {{W|Eight Banners}}, a new Jurchen military organization.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Crossley |first1=Pamela Kyle |title=A Translucent Mirror: History and Identity in Qing Imperial Ideology |date=2002 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0520234246 |page=196 |edition=illustrated, reprint |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hbEwDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA196}}</ref> During this period, Chinese cultural influence seeped through the Manchurian region and various ethnic groups living there.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=nzhq85nPrdsC&pg=PA214#v=onepage&q&f=false Forsyth 1994], p. 214.</ref>

In 1634, Hung Taiji renamed the Jurchens into Manchus, citing the former name as now derogatory.

[[File:A Tartar Huntsmen on His Horse.jpg|thumb|left|A Jurchen man hunting from his horse, from a 15th-century ink and color painting on silk]]

In 1644, the Ming dynasty was overthrown by peasant rebels. Ming general {{W|Wu Sangui}} called the Manchu leadership to assist in seizing Beijing. Using the opportunity of the chaos, the Manchus overthrew the nascent Shun Dynasty and established the Qing Dynasty. It was estimated that twenty-five million people died as a result of the conquest.<ref>{{cite news |title=5 Of The 10 Deadliest Wars Began In China |url=https://www.businessinsider.com/bloodiest-conflicts-in-chinese-history-2014-10 |work=Business Insider |date=6 October 2014}}</ref>

===Qing Empire===

[[file:清_佚名_《清太祖天命皇帝朝服像》.jpg|thumb|120px|Nurhaci, founder of the Manchu nation and the Qing Dynasty]]

After the Manchus conquered China, they built the {{W|Willow Palisade}} to control Chinese emigration to the ethnic Manchurian lands.<ref>Elliott, Mark C. "The Limits of Tartary: Manchuria in Imperial and National Geographies." ''Journal of Asian Studies'' 59, no. 3 (2000): 603–46.</ref> Only ethnic Manchurians and Chinese bannermen are allowed to settle in Giring and Sahaliyan Ula. 

During their reign over China, the Manchurians called their state "Dulimbai Gurun" and considered their state to be China.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=NESwGW_5uLoC&pg=PA117&dq=Dulimbai+gurun&hl=en&sa=X&ei=iT7tUsrhM4bhyQH_04HYBg&ved=0CFgQ6AEwCQ#v=onepage&q=Dulimbai%20gurun&f=false Hauer 2007], p. 117.</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=TmhtAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA80&dq=Dulimbai+gurun&hl=en&sa=X&ei=-0PtUoKZEKWgyAH8oIHgBQ&ved=0CF0Q6AEwCTge#v=onepage&q=Dulimbai%20gurun&f=false Dvořák 1895], p. 80.</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=zqVug_wN4hEC&pg=PA102&dq=Dulimbai+gurun&hl=en&sa=X&ei=m0PtUtv-OIOTyQHX8YCwAQ&ved=0CDAQ6AEwATgU#v=onepage&q=Dulimbai%20gurun&f=false Wu 1995], p. 102.</ref> Their definition of China also included Manchuria, Tibet, and Mongolia as a whole, and the "Chinese language" also refered to Manchu and Mongolian. The Treaty of Nerchinsk stated that the Manchurian lands are considered part of China. <ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20140325231543/https://webspace.utexas.edu/hl4958/perspectives/Zhao%20-%20reinventing%20china.pdf Zhao 2006], pp. 4, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 13, 14.</ref>

During the Kangxi and Qianlong eras, Manchurian-ruled China was said to have experienced a golden age. However, many scholars dispute the idea, claiming that literary censorship and political supremacy of the Eight Banners actually hindered its promise.<ref>{{Cite book |author = 刘小萌 |title = 《清代八旗子弟》 |page = 第206页 |publisher = 辽宁民族出版社 |year = 2008}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |author = 周敏（鲁东大学历史与社会学院） |title = 《首崇满洲——清朝的民族本位思想》 |journal =《沧桑》 |issue = 2008年第05期}}</ref>

As the centuries passed by, Han Chinese both legally and illegally settled to Manchuria, as Manchu banner landlords wanted Chinese labor and pay rent for their land to grow grain. 500,000 hectares of land were cultivated by Han Chinese by the end of the eighteenth century and about 203,583 hectares of Banner-owned lands were inhabited by Han, about 80% in estimate. <ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=HQ5KbXYhEB8C&pg=PA141&lpg=PA141&dq=sedentary+farming+manchu&source=bl&ots=1Ji7L_j2V1&sig=uQGL-sSQn1a2b1y1e5qTYLMMjq8&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0CEgQ6AEwBmoVChMItoTTucbPxgIVSVseCh3WWgJY#v=onepage&q=sedentary%20farming%20manchu&f=false Richards 2003], p. 141.</ref><ref>{{citation|first =John F.|last = Richards|title=The Unending Frontier: An Environmental History of the Early Modern World|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HQ5KbXYhEB8C&pg=PA141|date=2003|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-23075-0|page=141}}</ref> Many of these Chinese settlers were from North China and were introduced to settle on the Liyoo river to restore the land to cultivation. <ref>[https://www.jstor.org/stable/3985584?seq=2 Reardon-Anderson 2000], p. 504.</ref> Farmlands were also created by illegal Chinese settlers along with tenants. <ref>[https://www.jstor.org/stable/3985584?seq=3 Reardon-Anderson 2000], p. 505.</ref> Although the Qing Emperor {{W|Qianlong|Hungli}} repeated issued edicts against Chinese settlement in Manchuria, he later tolerated them as many of the Chinese settlers were suffering from drought. <ref>{{cite journal |last =Reardon-Anderson  |first = James |authorlink = |title =Land Use and Society in Manchuria and Inner Mongolia During the Qing Dynasty |journal =Environmental History |volume =5 |issue = 4 |pages =503–509 |date =2000 |language = |jstor = 3985584 |doi = 10.2307/3985584 |ref= harv}}</ref> .<ref>[http://www.phil-fak.uni-koeln.de/fileadmin/chinastudien/papers/No_1998-1.pdf Scharping 1998], p. 18.</ref> Chinese settlers even claimed land even from the Imperial estates. <ref>[https://www.jstor.org/stable/3985584?seq=5 Reardon-Anderson 2000], p. 507.</ref> To increase the revenue, the Daoguang Emperor even allowed sale of Banner land to Chinese settlers.<ref>[https://www.jstor.org/stable/3985584?seq=7 Reardon-Anderson 2000], p. 509.</ref> Sinicization was accelerated that eighty percent of the population were Chinese.<ref>[https://www.jstor.org/stable/3985584?seq=7 Reardon-Anderson 2000], p. 509.</ref>

Penetration of Russian influence increased in the early 19th century. After the humiliating loss of the {{W|Opium Wars}}, the Qing were forced to cede eastern parts of Manchuria to Russia in 1857 to 1860 during the Peking Convention. However, Russian-Qing disputes failed to end, as Russia in 1868 tried to expel Chinese prospectors around Vladivostok. Attempts by Russia to occupy Askold Island, supposedly ceded but remained occupied by Chinese, only bore fruit in 1892 when they finally managed to retake the island.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Lomanov|2005|pp=89–90}}{{blockquote|Probably the first clash between the Russians and Chinese occurred in 1868. It was called the Manza War, ''Manzovskaia voina''. "Manzy" was the Russian name for the Chinese population in those years. In 1868, the local Russian government decided to close down goldfields near Vladivostok, in the Gulf of Peter the Great, where 1,000 Chinese were employed. The Chinese decided that they did not want to go back, and resisted. The first clash occurred when the Chinese were removed from Askold Island, in the Gulf of Peter the Great. They organized themselves and raided three Russian villages and two military posts. For the first time, this attempt to drive the Chinese out was unsuccessful.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web | url=http://englishrussia.com/2011/01/25/an-abandoned-island-in-the-sea-of-japan/ |title = An Abandoned Island in the Sea of Japan|date = 2011-01-25}}</ref>

In the 1860s, the Qing were beset by weakened economic power, and half-hearted reforms such as the Self-Strengthening Movement failed to address the decline. Foreign companies such as the {{W|Swire Group}} and {{W|Jardines}} of the United Kingdom, based in Hong Kong, set up offices in Manchurian cities for trade purposes. From its opening in 1865 to 1891, Manchuria exported soybeans, soybean oil, wild silk, and ginseng. It imported in turn opium, cotton, and consumer goods. Girin Machinery Bureau, constructed in 1882, was the first factory built in Manchuria. It went on to become a machine shop during Japanese rule for Mantetsu rule and a coinage during the communist era.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|title=东北近代工业的先驱 ――吴大澂与吉林机器制造局|url=http://www.ccda.gov.cn/ccda/ccda/article.asp?secid=102&infoid=1812|accessdate=2019-10-18|author=|date=2006-05-18|format=|work=吉林日报|publisher=长春市档案馆|language=}}</ref>

In 1896, Tsarist Russia obtained the privilege of building a railway in Manchuria through the "Sino-Russian Treaty", and in 1898 obtained a lease in Port Arthur (now Dalin). During this period Japan also gradually strengthened its expansion to Manchuria. In 1904, the {{W|Russo-Japanese War}} broke out and Russia was defeated and forced cede its sphere of influence to Japan. Since then, Japan, Russia and China have all accelerated the development of Manchuria. In 1907, the Qing court converted the Manchurian territories into full provinces. Japan established the {{W|South Manchuria Railway Company}} in 1906 to implement a colonial strategy in Manchuria and encouraged Korean immigration. In 1909, Japan gave back to China Yeonbyeon in exchange for concessions. <ref>https://www.economist.com/special-report/2007/03/31/history-wars</ref>

An outbreak of bubonic plague occured in Manchuria in 1910-11, killing about 50,000 to 60,000 people in Harbin alone. <ref>''"[https://books.google.com/books?id=bxFC5ynXN2YC&pg=PA68&dq&hl=en#v=onepage&q&f=false Memories of Dr. Wu Lien-teh, plague fighter]"''. Yu-lin Wu (1995). {{W|World Scientific}}. p.68. {{ISBN|981-02-2287-4}}</ref> While the plague was contained, the high number of deaths forced Chinese and Manchurian officials to initiate stricter health measures, and shortly after the overthrow of the Qing, the North Manchurian Plague Office was established to combat outbreaks.

By 1900, the Qing Empire is in collapse due to the {{W|Boxer Rebellion}} and numerous failed uprisings such as the {{W|Taiping Rebellion}}. Many ethnic Manchurians supported the Boxer Uprising;<ref>[https://archive.org/details/orphanwarriorsth00cros_0/page/174 Crossley 1990], p. 174.</ref>, {{W|Ronglu}}  and {{W|Yixian|Yisian}} were prominent Manchu commanders on the side of the Qing during the uprising.<ref name="Woo 2002">{{cite book|last=Woo|first=X.L.|year=2002|title=Empress Dowager Cixi: China's Last Dynasty and the Long Reign of a Formidable Concubine|publisher=Algora Publishing|location=U.S.|isbn=0875861660}}</ref> A failed reform by Emperor {{W|Guangxu|Dzaitian}} in 1898 was seen by conservatives led {{W|Cixi|Yehenala Shinjen}} as usurpation of power and put end to such reforms. However, the Boxer Rebellion forced Shinjen to adopt reforms herself.<ref>Douglas Reynolds, ''China, 1898–1912: The Xinzheng Revolution and Japan'' (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1993). {{ISBN|0-674-11660-7}} passim.</ref>Although even more far-reaching than Dzai Tiyan's reforms, they were too little too late for the dynasty. Dzai Tiyan died in November 14, and Shinjen the next day, and reports suggest that the latter or {{W|Yuan Shikai}} poisoned the Emperor out of spite.<ref name="mu">{{cite web |last=Mu |first=Eric |url=https://www.danwei.org/front_page_of_the_day/kindergarden.php |title=Reformist Emperor Guangxu was Poisoned, Study Confirms  |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170702112941/http://www.danwei.org/front_page_of_the_day/kindergarden.php |archive-date=2 July 2017 |website=Danwei |date=3 November 2008 |access-date=13 February 2013}}</ref> The last Emperor of Qing, {{W|Pu Yi|Pui}}, was installed, with {{W|Zaifeng}} as regent as the new monarch was only two. In April 1911, Dzai Feng created a new cabinet staffed by members of the Imperial family, angering both conservative and reformist officials alike for such usurpation of royal power.<ref>Chien-nung Li, Jiannong Li, Ssŭ-yü Têng, "The political history of China, 1840–1928", p234</ref>

===Republic of China Era===

In October 10, 1911, an uprising called the {{W|Wuchang Uprising}} swept toards China. {{W|Yuan Shikai}}, trying to salvage the situation, eventually caused the abdication of Puyi in February 1912 and the proclamation of the Chinese Republic. However, there were still attempts to re-instate the Qing, like the {{W|Manchu restoration}} in 1917 led by Qing loyalist {{W|Zhang Xun (Qing loyalist)|Zhang Xun}}, which was dispersed by the Republican Chinese troops.

Meanwhile in Manchuria, a rebellion by Wang Cengbin over the maltreatment of Manchus in China proper caused him and other Manchus to rally for Manchu independence. They defeated attempts by Zhao Erxun and Zhang Zuolin to defeat attempts for Manchurian independence. However, Zhang Zuolin entrenched himself south of the Willow Palisade thanks to Japanese intervention, correctly assessing that Wang Cengbin had plans to conquer the Kwantung Territory.<ref>Zhao Zhongfu, “Xinhai geming qianhou de dongsansheng,” ''Bulletin of the Institute of Modern History'', Academia Sinica, Vol. 11 (Jul, 1982)</ref><ref>Bonavia 63-64</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Newton |first1=Michael |title=Famous Assassinations in World History: An Encyclopedia [2 volumes] |date=2014 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=1610692861 |page=653 |edition=illustrated, reprint |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=F4dAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA653}}</ref>Wang Cengbin also considered seizing Jehol and Chahar provinces, but was dissuaded by both Russia and Japan and kept their countries' respective railroads open and secure during the term of his rule.<ref name="LattimoreNachukdorji">{{cite book|author1=Owen Lattimore|author2=Sh Nachukdorji|title=Nationalism and Revolution in Mongolia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=28wUAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA171&dq=bogda+khan&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0CDIQ6AEwBGoVChMIsb6ako2PyQIVi7YeCh2g0Q_E#v=onepage&q=bogda%20khan&f=false|publisher=Brill Archive|pages=171–|id=GGKEY:4D2GY636WK5}}</ref>

===Independent Manchuria===

[[File:Wang Chengbin.jpg|thumb|Wang Cengbin, de-facto leader of Manchuria.]]

Wang Cengbin was a former Qing Dynasty general of Manchu descent.<ref>[https://www.thechinastory.org/ritp/wang-chen-ping-wang-chengbin-%E7%8E%8B%E6%89%BF%E6%96%8C/ Wang Chen-ping (Wang Chengbin) 王承斌] from ''Biographies of Prominent Chinese'' c.1925.</ref>After being cashiered by the new Republican government in 1911 allegedly due to false rumors of careerism, he fled to Manchuria in Harbin and successfully convinced the garisonned troops to defect for a new Manchu nation, claiming that the new Chinese Republic discriminates against Manchus and like the Mongols and the Tibetans, the Manchus must also declare independence.<ref>{{Cite book<!--|和書-->|author = {{W|中国社会科学院}}近代史研究所|title = 民国人物传 第12卷|year = 2005|publisher = {{W|中華書局}}|isbn = 7-101-02993-0}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book<!--|和書-->|author = {{W|徐友春主編}}|title = 民国人物大辞典 増訂版|year = 2007|publisher = {{W|河北人民出版社}}|isbn = 978-7-202-03014-1}}</ref> In December 2, 1913, the Manchu Commonwealth was created with Russian help; however, while he suceeded in forcing Zhang Zuolin's troops to defect to his side, by the time he was on a position to complete the conquest, Japanese and Fengtian troops barricaded the Willow Palisade. Seeing obligation to follow the Russian sphere of influence in Manchuria and to further consolidate his base, Wang Cengbin did not invade Fengtian. <ref>[http://epaper.hldnews.com/shtml/hldwb/20110901/4350131.shtml 弓挽强，王承斌墓碑碑文，葫芦岛晚报20110901期第b6版] {{cite web|title=弓挽强，王承斌墓碑碑文|url=http://epaper.hldnews.com/shtml/hldwb/20110901/4350131.shtml |date=September 1, 2011}}</ref>Due to Russian advice, Wang Cengbin created a new policy where Manchuria under his control would be weaned away from Chinese cultural influence, although as reflected in the name, he promised equality between Manchus and Han and that his re-Manchurianization policy are aimed at the ethnic Manchu minority; he intended it for the Chinese minority to learn Manchu as a second language. After spending some time with Sibe visitors from the former Sinkiang, Wang Cengbin declared his intent to revive the Manchu language in 1915; as a result, he hired Manchu teachers from the remaining Manchu-speaking villages, training the newest generation of Manchu speakers. He founded the Manju Guruni Kemhulen or the Manchurian National Association as his own political party. Although a Qing monarchist, he criticized the Aisin Gioro for putting Chinese interests over Manchuria's and forced Puwei's Qing Royalist Party to adopt a Manchuria-centric ideology. The Japanese tolerated and encouraged the Manchu language revival to eventually reduce Chinese influence and be more suspectible to Japanese influence. However, despite his efforts, only 23 percent of the population learned Manchu by 1932. While Manchuria is on all aspects, an independent state on the vein of Outer Mongolia and Tibet, many still consider Manchuria a Chinese warlord domain.

===Chinese Reconquest of Manchuria===

Angered by Wang Cengbin's alleged role in the assassination of his father in Fengtian, Zhang Zuolin pledged alliance to the KMT and helped defeat Wang Chengbin's troops in the Manchu-Chinese War of 1929. However, Zhang Zuolin even after capturing Wang Chengbin, promised to continue protecting the Manchu language and had the teaching of Manchu continued as before. While this placated some of the Manchu minority, who later began speaking Manchu again after the language revival, other Manchus and Chinese fear the influence of the KMT government could erode their gains in cultural autonomy. As a result, Aisingioro Puwei, the head of the Qing royalists, requested Japanese intervention against the Chinese.

===Manchukuo===

[[File:Kangde Emperor of Manchukuo.JPG|thumb|Emperor Puyi, also known as Kangde.]]

In 1931, the Japanese forces in Manchuria seized the country from the Chinese, creating {{W|Manchukuo}} a year later. The Japanese installed {{W|Pu Yi}} as leader, while effective leadeship is in the hands of the Japanese advisers. Several anti-Japanese Manchurian commanders such as {{W|Tong Linge|Tungia Linge}} joined the anti-Japanese resistance, although many were killed or later exiled.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://dangshi.people.com.cn/GB/85038/12603327.html|title=基督徒将军佟麟阁：抗战殉国的第一位高级将领|last=李|first=世峥|date=1 September 2010|website=中国民族报|access-date=4 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180524080749/http://dangshi.people.com.cn/GB/85038/12603327.html|archive-date=24 May 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://kknews.cc/zh-my/history/5axe29k.html |title=佟麟阁中国抗日战争牺牲的第一位高级将领 |date=27 May 2017 |website=每日头条 |access-date= }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.qulishi.com/news/201507/40821.html|title=佟麟阁中国抗日战争牺牲的第一位高级将领|date=27 May 2017|website=每日头条|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180524004216/http://www.qulishi.com/news/201507/40821.html|archive-date=24 May 2018}}</ref> Manchuria was used as a buffer state between Japan and the Soviet Union as both countries clashed twice in 1938 and 1939. <ref>{{cite book|last1=Coox|first1=Alvin D.|title=Nomonhan : Japan against Russia, 1939 |date=1990 |publisher=Stanford University Press|location=Stanford, Calif.|isbn=978-0804718356|page=841|edition=1st}}</ref> Manchu language education was intensified under Japanese control, to extirpate the Chinese language in Manchuria, alongside teaching the Japanese language. It was said that Japanese control of the resources in Manchuria enabled it to execute the {{W|Attack of Pearl Harbor|Pearl Harbor}} bombing and initate a conquest of {{W|Southeast Asia}} and the {{W|Western Pacific}}. <ref>Edward Behr, ''The Last Emperor'', 1987, p. 202</ref>

Several anti-Japanse Manchu leaders like {{W|Zhao Shangzhi|Joogia Sangsi}}, {{W|:zh:陈翰章|Foimo Meyen}}, and {{W|Yang Jingyu|Yangia Ordo}} fled to the Soviet Union and Mongolia and established a government in exile. Although at first they advocated that Manchuria return as an autonomous region in a future Communist China, a rift between Jogia Sangsi and the Yanan leadership was only temporarily healed and Jogia decided to separate and rename his Northeast Anti-Japanese Army into the Manchurian People's Army and finally ordered Manchurian nationalism under communist rule as important as anti-Japanese resistance.<ref>{{Cite book|title=东北抗联：绝地战歌|last=|first=|publisher=中共党史出版社|year=2012|isbn=9787509815670|location=|pages=|quote=|via=}}</ref>Feeling that Manchukuo imposed Japanization and both the KMT and the Chinese Communists want Sinicization, Jogia made the decision to use Manchu as the working language of the Manchurian exiles afterwards.<ref>{{Cite book|title=东北抗日联军史|last=|first=|publisher=解放军出版社|year=2014|isbn=7506567180|location=|pages=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=东北抗日联军抗战纪实|last=|first=|publisher=人民出版社|year=2005|isbn=9787010050393|location=|pages=}}</ref>

A coup by secretly communist Manchukuo officers during the Soviet invasion of Manchuria declared the establishment of the Manchu Republic. This was abetted by Jang Sioming, Jang Sioliang's brother, who secretly fled from Mainland China. His sincerity in Manchu independence was doubted because he planned to cede Manchuria back to either Mao or Chiang's China in exchange of autonomy. However, in September 1, 1945, he had to cede power to Jogia Sangsi, who secretly promised that Manchuria would never be sold out to either Chiang or Mao, in exchange of Sioming returning to China unharmed. The Kwantung Army, already battered by the atomic bombing of Japan, surrendered in droves. <ref name=Butow1954>{{W|Robert Butow}}, ''Japan's Decision to Surrender'', Stanford University Press, 1954 {{ISBN|978-0-8047-0460-1}}.</ref><ref name=Frank2001>{{W|Richard B. Frank}}, ''Downfall: The End of the Imperial Japanese Empire'', Penguin, 2001 {{ISBN|978-0-14-100146-3}}.</ref><ref name=Maddox2007>{{W|Robert James Maddox}}, ''Hiroshima in History: The Myths of Revisionism'', University of Missouri Press, 2007 {{ISBN|978-0-8262-1732-5}}.</ref><ref name=Hasegawa2006>[http://www.history.ucsb.edu/faculty/hasegawa.htm Tsuyoshi Hasegawa], ''Racing the Enemy: Stalin, Truman, and the Surrender of Japan'', Belknap Press, 2006 {{ISBN|0-674-01693-9}}.</ref>Pu Yi escaped to Japan, but was captured by the Americans and made witness to the Tokyo War Crimes Tribunal. He was imprisoned by the Soviet Union until released to live his exile to Japan. The majority of the Japanese settlers were either deported back to Japan or were forcibly conscripted and assimilated as Manchus by Jogia. Many of them only were able to return in the 1960s. <ref>Paul K. Maruyama, ''Escape from Manchuria'' (iUniverse, 2009) {{ISBN|978-1-4502-0581-8}} (hard cover), 9781450205795 (paperback), based on the earlier books in Japanese by K. Maruyama (1970) and M. Musashi (2000) and other sources</ref>

===Manchu People's Republic===

{{main|People's Republic of Manchuria (Country of the Everwhite Mountain)|l1= People's Republic of Manchuria}}

[[File:Zhao Shangzhi.jpg|thumb|Jogia Sangsi, early Manchurian People's Republic leader.]]

During the final days of {{W|World War II}}, the Soviet Army in the Far East attacked Manchuria and together with the {{W|Mongolian People's Army}} and the Manchurian People's Army, and occupied the former state of Manchukuo. It was said that the Chinese refusal to hand over {{W|Inner Mongolia}} to the {{W|Mongolian People's Republic}} spurred the Mongolian dictator Choibalsan to declare that the former Manchukuo should be handed over to Jogia's government in exile. Chiang Kai-shek replied that both Mongolia and Manchuria should remain under Chinese control, which angered Jogia. Tensions flared, the Nationalist and Communist Chinese were prohibited by the MPA and Mongolian forces from occupying the former Manchukuo. .<ref name="Borisov">Borisov, O. (1977). ''The Soviet Union and the Manchurian Revolutionary Base (1945–1949)''. Moscow, Progress Publishers.</ref>With the former Manchukuo Army soldiers being integrated to the Manchurian People's Army, Manchuria declared independence in February 1, 1946.

[[File:Otkrytie pamyatnika bortsam s kominternom.jpg|thumb|Soviet troops in Harbin, 1946]]

In exchange of recognizing independence, the {{W|Chinese Communist Party}} forced Manchuria to accept {{W|Guan Xiangying|Gualgia Acabun}}, an ethnic Manchurian, as President, as well as Gao Gang as Chinese ambassador, in exchange of independence. However, Gualgia died in 1947, and Gao Gang had at point had eased himself with the main Manchu leadership headed by Jogia Sangsi and {{W|Zhou Baozhong|Jo Dulimba}} as figurehead President.

During the Korean War, Jogia aided the Korean communist Kim Il-Sung, going as far as sending troops.<ref>{{cite book|author= {{W|Bruce Cumings}}| title = Korea's Place in the Sun: A Modern History| publisher = WW Norton & Company| year = 1997| isbn = 978-0-393-31681-0| pages = [https://archive.org/details/koreasplaceinsun00bruc/page/297 297–298]| url = https://archive.org/details/koreasplaceinsun00bruc/page/297}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author= {{W|Shiela Miyoshi Jager}}| title = Brothers at War – The Unending Conflict in Korea| year = 2013| publisher = Profile Books| location = London| isbn = 978-1-84668-067-0| pages = 237–242}}</ref>

However, the high cost of the war and the failure of the invasion due to UN intervention had created strains between every sector of the Manchurian leadership, and Jogia once considered resignation; he was retained at the request of the communist party. Yangia Ordo and Jo Dulimba were removed for disagreeing with Jogia about the conduct of the war; Jogia formally became president in 1956. Jangia and Jo both left for China, never returning to Manchuria again. Jo Dulimba reverted to his former name of Zhou Baozhong, later became governor of Yunnan, while Yangia Ordo went back to Yenan province, re-uniting with his family there and dying in 1965.<ref name="欧阳青">{{cite book |author=欧阳青 |title=《大授衔：1955共和国将帅授衔档案》|year=2011 |publisher=长城出版社 |location=北京市西城区甘家口三里河路40号 |pages=94|isbn=978-7-5483-0058-8 |language = zh-hans}}</ref><ref name="中国国防报1">{{cite web |title=杨靖宇将军儿女曾不知杨靖宇是自己父亲 |author=中国国防报 |url=http://war.163.com/07/0130/12/36393P3800011MSF.html |publisher=中国国防报, 网易新闻 (转载网站) |language=zh-cn |date=January 30, 2007 |accessdate=January 15, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170202125331/http://war.163.com/07/0130/12/36393P3800011MSF.html |archive-date=February 2, 2017}} (这则新闻把马尚德的妻子的名错写成了“郭凤”。网上另有一则题为《杨靖宇后代被找到 儿女坚决不要"特殊待遇"》的新闻与这则新闻的内容是一样的。)</ref>

[[File:China 10th Anniversary Parade in Shenyang.jpg|thumb|left|Military parade in Mukden,1959. Note that the writing was still in Chinese; Manchu became the exclusive language used in military parades after 1963.]]

Jogia initiated the so-called "{{W|Mutual Assured Destruction|Sahalin Ula Protocol}}" in 1960, as a response to China's more aggressive stances. It aims to usurp China's place as the leading Asian communist power by using internal reform within party and government, publicly allying with the Soviet Union but at the same time maintaining its independence, and with prime minister {{W|Li Zhaolin|Ligia Sabintu}}, broadened their relations with the West. Thousands of pro-unification PRC Manchurians were jailed or executed.{{Sfn|Country Study|2009|pp=XXXII, 46}} Jogia while publicly reforming the internal structure of the government, remained powerful. Unlike his neighbors, however, Jogia remained comparatively "moderate".

In 1956, Manchuria started a nuclear program, intended at first for peaceful purposes. However, the government believed that Manchuria would require to utilize the nuclear program to create its nuclear arsenal. Soviet documents revealed that the rationale is to prevent both American and Chinese aggression. Seeing Manchuria as too big for the Soviet Union to be brought into heel, Soviet leader {{W|Nikita Khrushchev}} tacitly allowed Manchuria to develop its own nuclear weapons, who is suffering with the fallout from Mao Zedong during the {{W|Sino-Soviet Split}}.<ref name="World History 2000. p.&nbsp;769">''Chambers Dictionary of World History'', B.P.Lenman, T. Anderson, Editors, Chambers: Edinburgh. 2000. p. 769.</ref>

In 1970, Jogia died, replaced by Foimo Meyen as President and {{W|:zh:孙铭武|Sunja Minggu}}, Jogia's preferred successor, as General Secretary. Sakda had to inherit the worsening border clashes within China due to the Cultural Revolution; already, Jogia was denounced in China for his failure to incorporate Manchuria to the PRC. Red Guards trying to infiltrate Manchuria were "killed on the spot". Soviet forces in Dalin and the Chinese-Manchurian border also engaged in {{W|Sino-Soviet Border Conflict|border clashes}}. <ref name="Phoenix">Wang, Zhen 王楨. Huángpái dàfàngsòng 皇牌大放送, "Duóbǎo bīngyuán——ZhōngSū Zhēnbǎo dǎo chōngtú 45 zhōunián jì" 奪寶冰原——中蘇珍寶島衝突45周年記 [Fighting for the treasure on icefield—Sino-Soviet Zhenbao Island conflict 45th anniversary]. Aired 5 April 2014 on Phoenix Television. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NtzIuc5FIMk</ref>

Of all the Soviet satellite states, Manchuria was one of the few that actually requested for Soviet and Eastern Bloc immigrants to upset the balance of the still-Chinese majority population. About 1 million immigrants from the Eastern Bloc emigrated to Manchuria, while simultaneously encouraged Han Chinese emigration to the PRC in exchange of ethnic Manchurians by the PRC until the emigration stopped in 1961 due to fears that ethnic Chinese will emigrate back to Manchuria. Perhaps due to the massive territorial losses incurred, the nuclear weapons program, activated in 1972 was to serve as a method to not to be sidelined in the Sino-Soviet split.<ref name=Sino-SovietSplit>Chung, Chin O. ''Cacon Between Peking and Moscow: Manchuria's Involvement in the Sino-Soviet Dispute, 1958–1975''. University of Alabama, 1978, p. 45.</ref>

Manchuria was denied by the Republic of China from admission into the United Nations due to its claims, even though it acquiesced in its admission of Mongolia in 1961.<ref name="unveto">{{cite web| url=http://www.un.org/zh/sc/meetings/veto/pdf/a58_47_p2.pdf| publisher=聯合國| script-title=zh:因常任理事国投反对票而未获通过的决议草案或修正案各段| language=Chinese| archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140323133412/http://www.un.org/zh/sc/meetings/veto/pdf/a58_47_p2.pdf| archivedate=March 23, 2014| df=mdy-all}}</ref><ref name="bbcveto">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/2828985.stm|title=The veto and how to use it|work=BBC News Online|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100726080318/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/2828985.stm|archivedate=July 26, 2010|df=mdy-all}}</ref><ref name="gpveto">{{cite web|url=http://www.globalpolicy.org/component/content/article/102/32810.html|title=Changing Pattern in the Use of Veto in the Security Council|publisher=Global Policy Forum|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130508103405/http://www.globalpolicy.org/component/content/article/102/32810.html|archivedate=May 8, 2013|df=mdy-all}}</ref> (see {{W|China and the United Nations}})
In 1971, the People's Republic in an overture to improve Manchuria-China relations, approved of Manchuria's entry to the United Nations.{{Sfn|Country Study|2009|p=203}}

===Modern Manchuria===
 
[[File:Události na náměstí Tian an men, Čína 1989, foto Jiří Tondl.jpg|thumb|Protesters against the communist regime in 1990]]

By 1990, Manchuria's economy started to decline; many people felt that the communists have long outlasted them. Chinese exiles after the 1989 protests aided the pro-democracy protesters. After much hesitation, {{W|Li_Zhaolin|Ligia Sabintu}} resigned and a more moderate leader, {{W|:zh:于浩成|Dong Mutem}}, took over. A new constitution was signed in March 1991, formally abolishing communist rule.

After the fall of Communist regime in Manchuria, the government in Cacon feared that China will attempt to overthrow their government by force, as Chinese people who fled the {{W|Tiananmen Square}} protests in 1989 were allowed refuge by the Manchurian government. 

The economy grew again after the change of government, but the fallout in sales of weaponry to such states such as Saddam-era Iraq and Rwanda caused Dong Mutem, a Social Democrat, to lose to {{W|Guan Guangfu|Gualgia Bayan}}, a former Manchu Communist Party stalwart now becoming the leader of the opposition {{W|People's Democratic Party}}, a party composed of former Communist Party officials. Gualgia accused Dong of being a "sellout", and he sought to repair Manchuria's economy using methods he claims to have borrowed from Finland and Korea during the rule of Park Chung-hee.<ref>Kwak, Tae-Hwan; Joo, Seung-Ho (2003). ''The Korean peace process and the four powers''. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. {{ISBN|978-0-7546-3653-3}}.</ref><ref>DeRouen, Karl; Heo, Uk (2005). ''Defense and Security: A Compendium of National Armed Forces and Security Policies''.ABC-CLIO.</ref>

Gualgia was succeeded as President by Niohur Maoseng, also a People's Democratic Party member. While he continued Gualgia's economic reforms, his credibility plummeted due to his numerous political scandals, his attempt to repair relations with China, and his public criticism of the US War in Iraq. While he regained his popularity by negotating a new treaty with Korea, he was unable to secure a second term.<ref>Kwak, Tae-Hwan; Joo, Seung-Ho (2003). ''The Korean peace process and the five powers''. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. {{ISBN|978-0-7546-3653-3}}</ref><ref>DeRouen, Karl; Heo, Uk (2005). ''Defense and Security: A Compendium of National Armed Forces and Security Policies''.ABC-CLIO.</ref>{{W|Chen Zhenggao|Cengia Dasan}} of the National Association Party, defeated Gualgia in the next election. He then used his power to arrest the decline of the factories despite Manchuria's economic growth, concentrating on increasing petroleum and automotive exports and used what he termed "infrastructure diplomacy" in Africa, Latin America, and Southeast Asia. His efforts was hampered by the economic crisis in 2008, but he made a comeback a year later and was poised to be the first Manchurian president to get re-elected, in 2010. However, his second term was marred with another series of scandals, this time involving China and its investment in the Manchurian economy, and after a series of protests in 2012, requested a referendum which was granted. {{W|Liu Xiaobo|Lin Boljon}}, his Prime Minister, defected from the National Association and joined the Social Democrats, and easily won the election. He repaired the damaged relations with Korea and Japan and took a pro-United States position in political affairs. Lin never stood for re-election again due to cancer; he died in 2016 seven months before he could finish his term. A coup de etat by some members of the National Assembly, ostensibly to install their preferred successor against Lin's wishes, were suppressed in June 3, 2016. {{W|Li Jingtian|Liala Tuabun}} took over the presidency and tried to stand for election in 2017 but was defeated by {{W|Bai Chunli|Baigia Dorolon}} of the People's Democratic Party. He took a neutral stand in political affairs and dealt with the {{W|Covid-19 Pandemic}} in his country. His administration was criticized for not doing enough to mitigate the spread of the virus.

==Government and Politics==

:''Main article: {{wpl|Politics_of_Manchukuo|Politics of Manchuria}}<br>Main article:{{wpl|Government of Manchukuo|Government of Manchuria}}''

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:left; float:left; margin-right:9px; margin-left:2px;"
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| [[File:Professor Chunli Bai ForMemRS.jpg|120px]]
|-
| style="text-align:center;"|{{W|Bai Chunli|Baigia Dorolon}}<br /><small>[[President of Manchuria (Country of the Everwhite Mountain)|President]]</small>
|}

Manchuria is officially a unitary semi-presidential parliamentary state with a bi-cameral legislature.<ref name="Draft">{{cite journal |author={{W|Matthew Søberg Shugart}}|date=September 2005 |title=Semi-Presidential Systems: Dual Executive and Mixed Authority Patterns |url=http://dss.ucsd.edu/~mshugart/semi-presidentialism.pdf ||journal=Graduate School of International Relations and Pacific Studies |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080819200307/http://dss.ucsd.edu/~mshugart/semi-presidentialism.pdf |archivedate=August 19, 2008 |pages= |access-date=21 February 2016 }}</ref><ref name="Dual">{{cite journal |author={{W|Matthew Søberg Shugart}} |date=December 2005 |title=Semi-Presidential Systems: Dual Executive And Mixed Authority Patterns |url=http://www.palgrave-journals.com/fp/journal/v3/n3/pdf/8200087a.pdf |journal=French Politics |volume=3 |issue=3 |pages=323–351 |doi=10.1057/palgrave.fp.8200087 |access-date=21 February 2016 |quote=Even if the president has no discretion in the forming of cabinets or the right to dissolve parliament, his or her constitutional authority can be regarded as 'quite considerable' in Duverger’s sense if cabinet legislation approved in parliament can be blocked by the people's elected agent. Such powers are especially relevant if an extraordinary majority is required to override a veto, as in Mongolia,'''Manchuria''', Poland, and Senegal. |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304053112/http://www.palgrave-journals.com/fp/journal/v3/n3/pdf/8200087a.pdf |archivedate=March 4, 2016 |df=mdy-all }}</ref>The non-governmental organization Freedom House consider Manchuria as ''Partially Free''.<ref>{{Cite web|url = https://freedomhouse.org/sites/default/files/FH_FITW_Report_2016.pdf|title = Freedom in the World, 2016|date = |access-date = 30 January 2016|website = |publisher = Freedom House|archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20160205095411/https://freedomhouse.org/sites/default/files/FH_FITW_Report_2016.pdf|archivedate = February 5, 2016|df = mdy-all}}</ref>

[[File:The Puppet Manchukuo government's State Department 伪满洲国务院.jpg|thumb|220px|National Assembly Building.]]

The {{W|President}} (Beile) is the recognized head of state of the country; he is elected by the populace for a four-year term renewable only once in a re-election. He appoints the {{W|Prime Minister}} (Ejen) who heads the cabinet{{Sfn|Country Study|2009|p=218}}. The so-called "Jogia's Mansion", the former Kwantung Army commander's mansion during the Manchukuo era, was converted for the President's personal residence with the Salt Palace used as official residence.

The {{W|Constitution of Manchuria}} serves as the supreme law of Manchuria, which established clear separation of powers. However, for the most part of its history Manchuria was under autocratic rule.{{Sfn|Country Study|2009|p=220}} From 1945 Manchuria was ruled as a Communist single-party state that ended in 1991 following the Sorghum Revolution. In 1990 Manchuria adopted its current constitution, becoming a liberal democracy. Nevertheless former members of the Communist Party of Manchuria are still prominent and active in politics.

The legislature is called the National Assembly or Gurungge Hebeiba; it sits in the General Affairs State Council building. It is composed of the Senate (Dergi Hebeiba), and the House of representatives (Fejergi Hebeiba). The Senate is composed of 101 members, the House of Representatives is composed of 400 members. Each senator is to serve for four years and can be re-elected once; its main duty is to improve the laws of the House of Representatives and keeps the latter in check. Each member of the House of Representatives can be elected for three years and can be re-elected once; it proposes and drafts new laws for the country.{{Sfn|Country Study|2009|p=229}}

==Foreign Relations==

:''Main article: {{wpl|Foreign Relations of Manchuria}}''


Manchuria's foreign affairs is conducted by its {{W|Foreign Ministry}}. Its key foreign policy is to retain its relative military power among other Asian nations, especially that along with China, Taiwan, Korea, and Japan, possess nuclear weapons in the Eastern Asia region. It pursues an independent foreign policy but has been notably close to Russia since 1945. However, Manchuria also pursued warmer relations with Western countries particularly the United States.

Manchuria is a member of several organisations such as the {{W|United Nations}}, {{W|G-20}}, {{W|WTO}}, {{W|APEC}}, {{W|IMF}}, {{W|WBG}}, {{W|ADB}}, {{W|East Asia Summit}}, {{W|ACD}}, {{W|PEMSEA}}, {{W|Non-Aligned Movement}}, {{W|Group of 15}}, and the {{W|Group of 24}}.

[[File:Dmitry Medvedev with Li Hui.jpg|thumb|Li Foson, Manchurian ambassador to Russia, with then President Dmitri Medvedev in Moscow in 2009.]]

During the Cold War, it traditionally supported the Soviet Union until its demise in 1991. During the Manchukuo era, the Soviets opened consulates in Harbin. After the war, the Soviet Union upgraded their full relations with the new Manchurian communist government. Manchuria continues its relations with Russia.<ref>[http://www.knowbysight.info/6_MID/03792.asp Генеральное консульство СССР в Харбине] {{cite web|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140318211826/http://www.knowbysight.info/6_MID/03792.asp |date=18 March 2014 |title= Генеральное консульство СССР в Харбине}}</ref><ref>{{W|Igor Ivanov|Ivanov, Igor}} (2002). ''Outline of the History of the Minister of Foreign Affairs of Russia''. In Russian. OLMA Media Group, p. 219</ref><ref>[http://www.law.osaka-u.ac.jp/~tanakahi/china40s/data/E-CH.htm Chronology of China in the 1940s] {{cite web|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141023023540/http://www.law.osaka-u.ac.jp/~tanakahi/china40s/data/E-CH.htm |date=23 October 2014|title=Chronology of China in the 1940s}}. {{W|Osaka University}}School of Law. Retrieved 29 December 2017.</ref><ref>K. A. Karayeva. [http://elar.urfu.ru/bitstream/10995/4839/2/uv-2005-08.pdf МАНЬЧЖОУ ГО (1931–1945): «МАРИОНЕТОЧНОЕ» ГОСУДАРСТВО В СИСТЕМЕ МЕЖДУНАРОДНЫХ ОТНОШЕНИЙ НА ДАЛЬНЕМ ВОСТОКЕ] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140903140739/http://elar.urfu.ru/bitstream/10995/4839/2/uv-2005-08.pdf |date=3 September 2014}}. {{W|Ural Federal University}} archives.</ref> Manchuria under Lin Boljon criticized the Russian invasion of Ukraine as "extreme over-reach of people's aspirations". During the Russian Invasion of Ukraine in 2022, Baigiya Dorolon said that the {{W|Russian Invasion of Ukraine}} should be solved as peacefully as possible; his government refrained from joining sanctions against Russia. Manchuria has amicable relations with all the other post-Soviet republics.

Manchuria also has traditionally warm relations with {{W|India}}, as Manchuria provided material for India's {{W|India_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction#Nuclear_weapons|nuclear weapons program}}.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://mea.gov.in/mystart.php?id=50049826 |title=Sorry for the inconvenience. |publisher= |accessdate=21 February 2015}}</ref>

As Mongolia second-largest trading partner, Manchuria enjoy excellent relations with its western neighbor. There are issues being tackled including emigration of Mongols to Manchuria.<ref name="mfat">{{cite web|url=http://www.mfat.gov.mn/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=70&Itemid=83&lang=en |title=LIST OF STATES WITH DIPLOMATIC RELATIONS |publisher=Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade |accessdate=26 October 2012 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722215952/http://www.mfat.gov.mn/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=70&Itemid=83&lang=en|archivedate=22 July 2011}}</ref>{{Sfn|Country Study|2009|pp=272–273}}

Of all the countries in Western Europe, Manchuria is said to be closest to Finland, and Manchurian economic planners took cues to Finland's economic model. Many Manchurian products sold to Europe were sold first to Finland. Some of modern Manchurian artists' first exposure to western arts are through Finnish channels. The largest non-native minority in Finland are Manchurians.

Manchuria's relations with the West increased considerably. There is steady immigration to the United States, but as these emigrants tend to be Chinese-speaking Manchurians, until recently they are considered as Chinese. 

Manchuria both maintains relations with Israel<ref name="Urban History">{{cite journal |last1=Gamsa |first1=Mark |title=Harbin in comparative perspective |journal=Urban History |date=May 2010 |volume=37 |issue=1 |pages=136-149 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/44614252}}</ref> and the State of Palestine as well as the Sahrawi Democratic Republic.{{sfn|Wertz|Oh|Kim|2016|p=8}} Although it supported the Palestinian struggle like other East Bloc countries, it is one of the few countries that still maintained relationship with {{W|Israel}} during that period.

It was with its immediate neighbors that Manchuria has difficulty in maintaining good relations. Mao's acceptance of Manchurian independence was said by him to have been made with "great reluctance." Even though Manchuria and China fought on the same side during the Korean War, China tried and failed to use the war as leverage to re-incorporate Manchuria. During the Sino-Soviet Split and the Cultural Revolution, Manchuria had to fend off border incursions by China with Soviet help. Only after the Sino-Vietnamese War and China's market reforms did Manchuria-Chinese relations improve, and even then, the defeat of the former Democratic People's Republic of Korea was "never forgotten" by Beijing and Manchuria's role with it was used as a sticking point.

Manchurian-Korean relations are friendly despite the Korean War and subsequent border clashes. Sticking points include how to address war reparations with each other and claims by Manchurian historians that Korea deliberatedly whitewashed the history of {{W|Goguryeo}} to erase the Manchurian origin of the kingdom, causing protests and counter-protests from both sides.<ref>[http://www.ou.edu/uschina/gries/articles/texts/Gries2005KoguryoEAIQ.pdf 02Gries.pmd<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref><ref name="news.naver.com">Donga Monthly. http://news.naver.com/main/read.nhn?mode=LSD&mid=sec&sid1=101&oid=037&aid=0000006961</ref> <ref name="autogenerated2">{{cite news |url= http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Korea/FI11Dg03.html |title=Asia Times&nbsp;– News and analysis from Korea; North and South |work=Asia Times |location =Hong Kong |date=September 11, 2004 |accessdate=April 25, 2010}}</ref>. As of 2018, Manchuria is now Korea's largest trading partner, accounting for 46 percent of the trade.<ref name="auto3">{{cite web |url= https://atlas.media.mit.edu/en/profile/country/kor/ |title=South Korea Country Profile |work=MIT |date=March 10, 2018}}</ref>

While Manchurian-Japanese relations are now better than before, their background was also complex. Left-leaning Manchurian politicians occasionally request compensation from Japan, in which Japan said it already made apologies. Japanese politicians in turn decry Manchuria's sidestepping in its roles in anti-Japanese pogroms in 1946. Nevertheless, Japanese-Manchurian relations are cordial and compared in the past, now done in an equal basis; anime and manga are regularly being shown in Manchuria with a large fandom in Manchuria itself, and Manchurian light novels and visual novels recently provide material for new Japanese animated series. Many Japanese people retire to Manchuria and younger Manchurians emigrate to Japan. 30% of the Chinese diaspora in Japan are of Manchurian origin.<ref>[[https://www.mofa.go.jp/region/asia-paci/n_korea/index.html|https://www.mofa.go.jp/region/asia-paci/manchuria/index.html]]</ref><ref>[http://jp.changchun.gov.cn/japan/whys.aspx?ID=3|http://jp.cacungga.gov.mj/japan/whys.aspx?ID=3| 満州・長春の民俗文化]</ref>

==Military==

{{Main|Manchurian_Armed_Forces_(Country_of_the_Everwhite_Mountain)|l1=Military of Manchuria}}

[[File:Su-27SM3 flight, Celebration of the 100th anniversary of Russian Air Force.jpg|150px|thumb|Manchurian Su-27.]]

[[File:North_Korea_Victory_Day_122_(9465927866).jpg|150px|thumb|Manchurian tanks in a military parade.]]

The Manchurian Armed Forces is the second largest armed forces in East Asia after China.

The Armed Forces is composed an army, navy, and air force. The MAF has the second largest army in East Asia in active forces (1,228,300), though its paramilitary forces called the Green Standard Corps (9,320,000) when added make it the largest military force in the world.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Military Balance 2010 |author={{W|International Institute for Strategic Studies}}|editor-last=Hackett |editor-first=James |date=3 February 2010 |publisher={{W|Routledge}} |location={{W|London}} |isbn=978-1-85743-557-3 |ref=IISS2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nationmaster.com/graph/mil_arm_per_percap-military-army-personnel-per-capita |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070217230331/http://www.nationmaster.com/graph/mil_arm_per_percap-military-army-personnel-per-capita |archivedate=17 February 2007 |title=Army personnel (per capita) by country |accessdate=1 August 2007 |year=2007 |work=NationMaster}}</ref> 

In addition, a separate armed force called the National Guard  directly reports to the President, and serves as his bodyguard. The National Guard is focused on unconventional warfare.

The President of Manchuria is the commander-in-chief of the MAF, which answers to the {{W|Ministry of Defence}}. The Chief of Staff of the Manchurian Armed Forces is a professional soldier with a four-star rank. The military's influence in civilian life had been shaped by its role by throwing its support behind the protesters in the 1991 anti-communist revolution. {{Sfn|Country Study|2009|p=247}}

The predecessor to the MAF, the {{W|Mongolian People's Army|Manchurian People's Army}}, primarily received military equipment from the Soviet Union. The MAF's foreign weaponry are largely Soviet or Eastern Bloc in design if not in manufacture, and many of the weaponry made in Manchuria are of East Bloc heritage as well. Recently Manchuria has started purchasing weaponry and equipment from Germany and Japan.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.soldiering.ru/country/guide2003/army-09.php |title=Worls militaries: K |publisher=soldiering.ru |accessdate=23 May 2014  |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006112837/http://www.soldiering.ru/country/guide2003/army-09.php |archivedate=6 October 2014 }}</ref>

Manchuria possesses nuclear weapons.<ref>{{cite book|url=http://csis.org/files/publication/110712_Cordesman_KoreaMilBalance_WEB.pdf|title=The East Asian Military Balance|author=Anthony H. Cordesman|date=21 July 2011|publisher=Center for Strategic & International Studies|isbn=978-0-89206-632-2|page=156|quote=The Republic of Manchuria has {{W|Nuclear weapon design|implosion fission}} and fusion weapons.|accessdate=28 July 2011|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20111011185007/http://csis.org/files/publication/110712_Cordesman_KoreaMilBalance_WEB.pdf|archivedate=11 October 2011}}</ref> The nuclear weapons program were built in the 1960s as an anti-Chinese deterrent, and after the fall of the Soviet Union, it was rumored that the Soviets actually sold some of their newer weapons to Manchuria in exchange not to sell Manchurian weapons to countries Russia disapproved of. Manchuria did not sign the {{W|Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons}}; it also signed the {{W|Chemical Weapons Convention}} in 1987 but did not ratify it.{{Sfn|Country Study|2009|p=260}}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://english.chosun.com/site/data/html_dir/2010/04/29/2010042901362.html |title=New Threat from Manchuria's 'Asymmetrical' Warfare |publisher=The Chosun Ilbo (English Edition) |work=English.chosun.com |date=29 April 2010 |accessdate=13 December 2010 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20101224190403/http://english.chosun.com/site/data/html_dir/2010/04/29/2010042901362.html |archivedate=24 December 2010 }}</ref> 

{{W|Conscription|Patriotic Civil Service}} is the term called for conscription; all males at the age of 18 are considered recruits; people who had disabilities are granted honorary ranks but are only allowed to participate in civil relations. Refusal to serve is considered a capital punishment during early communist times which meant automatic death penalty; this was reduced and conscientious objectors were sentenced to jail which were still criticized. After the fall of the Communist system, conscientious objection is no longer punished; "equivalent civilian work" or heavier taxation were used instead.

===Law Enforcement and Intelligence===

:''Main article: {{wpl|Manchukuo Police|Giarici Quaren}}''<br>''Main article: {{wpl|Manchukuo#Legal_system|Law of Manchuria}}''<br>
:''See also: {{wpl|Manchukuo#Legal_system|Judiciary of Manchuria}}''

Manchuria has a legal system inherited from Russian, Japanese, Prussian, and Chinese models.<ref>https://web.archive.org/web/20140518174611/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2100.html</ref> Judiciary appeals are handled by the Supreme Court, which serves as the highest court of appeal.

Internal security is provided by the {{W|Police|Giarici Quaren}}. The Foreign Intelligence Agency is called the Elh Qarmetem Yamun, or the Security Bureau, being headed by the Minister of State Security, and the domestic intelligence service is called the Baiicamb Yamun, or the Investigation Bureau, subordinated under the Ministry of Justice.<ref>{{Cite web|last=UNODC|title=Data and Analysis>Crime surveys>The periodic United Nations Surveys of Crime Trends and Operations of Criminal Justice Systems>Fifth Survey (1990 - 1994)|url=http://www.uncjin.org/Statistics/WCTS/WCTS5/wcts5.html|accessdate=2008-08-26|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090729012918/http://www.uncjin.org/Statistics/WCTS/WCTS5/wcts5.html|archivedate=2009-07-29}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=UNODC|title=Data and Analysis>Crime surveys>The periodic United Nations Surveys of Crime Trends and Operations of Criminal Justice Systems>Sixth Survey (1995 - 1997)>Sorted by variable|url=http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/data-and-analysis/Sixth-United-Nations-Survey-on-Crime-Trends-and-the-Operations-of-Criminal-Justice-Systems.html|accessdate=2008-08-26 }}</ref>All of the security services are routinely criticized for their lack of oversight, police brutality, and excessive use of force, but were known to be very effective in counter-terrorist and counter-intelligence activities.<ref>{{Cite web|last=UNODC|title=Data and Analysis>Crime surveys>The periodic United Nations Surveys of Crime Trends and Operations of Criminal Justice Systems>Fifth Survey (1990 - 1994)|url=http://www.uncjin.org/Statistics/WCTS/WCTS5/wcts5.html|accessdate=2008-08-26|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090729012918/http://www.uncjin.org/Statistics/WCTS/WCTS5/wcts5.html|archivedate=2009-07-29}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=UNODC|title=Data and Analysis>Crime surveys>The periodic United Nations Surveys of Crime Trends and Operations of Criminal Justice Systems>Sixth Survey (1995 - 1997)>Sorted by variable|url=http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/data-and-analysis/Sixth-United-Nations-Survey-on-Crime-Trends-and-the-Operations-of-Criminal-Justice-Systems.html|accessdate=2008-08-26 }}</ref> Crimes in Manchuria are relatively lower than in the recent years, after an uptick in the 1990s and early 2000s, and involved bulglary, money-laundering, and drug-trafficking.<ref>{{Cite web|last=UNODC|title=Data and Analysis>Crime surveys>The periodic United Nations Surveys of Crime Trends and Operations of Criminal Justice Systems>Fifth Survey (1990 - 1994)|url=http://www.uncjin.org/Statistics/WCTS/WCTS5/wcts5.html|accessdate=2008-08-26|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090729012918/http://www.uncjin.org/Statistics/WCTS/WCTS5/wcts5.html|archivedate=2009-07-29}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=UNODC|title=Data and Analysis>Crime surveys>The periodic United Nations Surveys of Crime Trends and Operations of Criminal Justice Systems>Sixth Survey (1995 - 1997)>Sorted by variable|url=http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/data-and-analysis/Sixth-United-Nations-Survey-on-Crime-Trends-and-the-Operations-of-Criminal-Justice-Systems.html|accessdate=2008-08-26 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=UNODC|title=Data and Analysis>Crime surveys>The periodic United Nations Surveys of Crime Trends and Operations of Criminal Justice Systems>Seventh Survey (1998 - 2000)>Sorted by variable|url=http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/data-and-analysis/Seventh-United-Nations-Survey-on-Crime-Trends-and-the-Operations-of-Criminal-Justice-Systems.html|accessdate=2008-08-26 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=UNODC|title=Data and Analysis>Crime surveys>The periodic United Nations Surveys of Crime Trends and Operations of Criminal Justice Systems>Eighth Survey (2001 - 2002)>Sorted by variable|url=http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/data-and-analysis/Eighth-United-Nations-Survey-on-Crime-Trends-and-the-Operations-of-Criminal-Justice-Systems.html|accessdate=2008-08-26 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=UNODC|title=Data and Analysis>Crime surveys>The periodic United Nations Surveys of Crime Trends and Operations of Criminal Justice Systems>Ninth Survey (2003 - 2004)>Values and Rates per 100,000 Total Population Listed by Country|url=http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/data-and-analysis/Ninth-United-Nations-Survey-on-Crime-Trends-and-the-Operations-of-Criminal-Justice-Systems.html|accessdate=2008-08-26 }}</ref>

==Geography==

{{main|Manchuria#Geography_and_climate|l1=Geography of Manchuria}}

[[File:China Railways passenger train K1452 on Binsui railway 20120817.jpg|thumb|250px|{{W|Hailang River|Hailan Bira River}} near Ninguta City]]

The territory within Manchuria lies within the northern part of the {{W|North China craton}}, which is an area of {{W|Precambrian}} rocks over 100 million hectares. Manchuria is traditionally divided into three geographic regions: the Hingan mountains, the Manchurian plain, and the {{W|Changbai Mountains|Golmin Shanggiyan Mountain}} region. The Hinggan mountains are a Jurassic mountain range<ref>Bogatikov, Oleg Alekseevich (2000); ''Magmatism and Geodynamics: Terrestrial Magmatism throughout the Earth's History''; pp. 150–151. {{ISBN|90-5699-168-X}}</ref>, stemming from a collision between the North China craton and the Siberian craton.

Manchuria was never glaciated during the Quartenary period, but the fertile soils of the lower-lying areas indicate movements from the western mountains in Asia such as the Himalayas and the Tien Shan mountains, and also the Gobi and Taklamakan deserts.<ref>Kropotkin, Prince P.; "Geology and Geo-Botany of Asia"; in '''Popular Science''', May 1904; pp. 68–69</ref>

In the middle between the Hinggan Range and the Ğolmin Xiangian Mountains is the Manchurian plain, also known as the Dongbei plain in Chinese or the Sungari-Liyoo Plain, with the {{W|Sungari}}, {{W|Nen River|Non}}, and {{W|Liao River|Lioha}} Rivers running through the plain. Here is the area where widespread cultivation takes place. Majority of the soybean, millet, wheat, and rice are being planted in this region. The area is connected to the North China plain to the south-west.

===Climate===

Manchuria's climate provided contrasts, with very Arctic-like winters and hot, tropical summers. The position of Manchuria between the Eurasian landmass and the Pacific Ocean contribute to this climactic situation. Due to being in the border region of Eurasia and the Pacific, the climate triggers monsoonal wind reversal.

[[File:Climate_Map_for_Manchuria-Northeast_China.png|thumb|left|Climate map of Manchuria]]

The dominant climate type according the Koppen scheme is the hot-summer dry continental, especially in the plain. In the far north, dry-winter subarctic climate prevails, and in the west, pockets of cold semiarid climate persist.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.amlinkint.com/English/travel-to-china/images/about-china-annual-precipit.jpg |title=Average Annual Precipitation in China |accessdate=2010-05-18 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100602163920/http://www.amlinkint.com/English/travel-to-china/images/about-china-annual-precipit.jpg |archivedate=2 June 2010 |df=dmy-all }}</ref>

Temperatures during the winter are usually cold due to the {{W|Siberian High}}, ranging from -5 °C (23°F) to -30°C (-22°F), depending on latitude, which is considered colder when further north.<ref>Kaisha, Tesudo Kabushiki and Manshi, Minami; '''Manchuria: Land of Opportunities'''; pp. 1–2. {{ISBN|1-110-97760-3}}</ref> The Siberian winds are relatively dry, however, and the snow is rarely heavy. <ref>Kaisha and Manshi; '''Manchuria'''; pp. 1–2</ref>  Thus Manchuria, despite being colder than North America, never glaciated due to the strong westerly winds from western Eurasia.<ref>[http://www.eas.slu.edu/People/KChauff/earth_history/4EH-posted.pdf Earth History 2001]{{dead link|date=June 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} (page 15)</ref>

In contrast, during summer, moist, southwestern winds bring thunderstorms, usually bringing 400 to 1150 mm of rain depending on the area; the area around the east receives more rain.

===Flora===

Manchuria has a varied flora and fauna. The {{W|Mongolian-Manchurian Grassland}}, for example, are dominated by grasslands like the {{W|feather grass}}. It was reported that there are eighty-five native Manchurian species of flowers and plants.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Komarov |first1=Vladimir Leontovich |title=Flora Manshuriae. |date=1901 |location=St. Petersburg |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/44863 |accessdate=2 April 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Baranov |first1=A.I. |title=Wild Vegetables of the Chinese in Manchuria |journal=Economic Botany |date=April 1967 |volume=Vol. 21 |issue=No. 2 |pages=140-155 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/4252860 |accessdate=2 April 2020}}Because of early settlement, the southern Liyootun Peninsula was cleared of native vegetation early. Most of the forests that remain, however, do contain species of Manchurian pine, elm, birch, lime, oaks, apples, and ashes.On the western side of the peninsula, trees are scarce. During the early 20th century after the fall of the Qing, indiscriminate logging thinned down most of the southern Manchurian forests. The vegetation in the eastern zone of the peninsula has mixed coniferous and broad-leaved forests.</ref><ref>https://www.britannica.com/place/Liaoning#ref280641</ref>In central Manchuria, the vegetation is prairie grass in the western side, and mostly mixed conifer and deciduous forests on the eastern side.<ref>https://www.britannica.com/place/Jilin-province-China#ref71048</ref>In the north, cultivation also thinned down forests there; the majority of the trees are poplars.Herbaceous plants, pasteurizable grass, and sorghum and found there.<ref>https://www.britannica.com/place/Heilongjiang#ref71034</ref>The trees that are commonly found in Manchuria are conifers like the Korean pine (Pinus koraiensis), Manchurian fir (Abies holophylla), and Siberian spruce (Picea obovata), and also deciduous trees like the Mongolian oak (Quercus mongolica), Manchurian ash (Fraxinus mandschurica), Amur linden (Tilia amurensis), and Manchurian elm (Ulmus laciniata). The Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris) can also be found in Central Manchuria.<ref>{{cite web|title=Manchurian mixed forests|url=https://www.worldwildlife.org/ecoregions/pa0426|publisher=World Wildlife Federation|language=en|access-date=February 23, 2020}}</ref><ref name="ecomap">{{cite web|title=Map of Ecoregions 2017|url=https://ecoregions2017.appspot.com/|publisher=Resolve, using WWF data|language=en|access-date=September 14, 2019}}</ref><ref name=Ecoreg>{{cite journal | first1=Eric | last1=Dinerstein | first2=David | last2=Olson | display-authors=etal | year=2017 | title=An Ecoregion-Based Approach to Protecting Half the Terrestrial Realm | journal=BioScience | volume=67 | issue=6 | date=June 2017 | pages=534–545 | doi=10.1093/biosci/bix014| doi-access=free }} Supplemental material 2 table S1b.</ref>

===Fauna===

Manchuria is also home to varied fauna such as the {{W|Manchurian tiger}}<ref>http://factsanddetails.com/china/cat10/sub68/item381.html</ref>, though the World Wildlife Fund fears that the protection of these wildlife is limited at best.<ref>https://www.worldwildlife.org/ecoregions/pa0902</ref> In the southern flatlands, wild animals are scarce, except for rodents. Locusts are considered destructive pests. In contrast, northern Manchuria has abundance of wildlife. During the Manchukuo era, fur trade was common and extended in the Communist era; fear of extinction and efforts by wildlife activists and the government stemmed most extinctions.<ref>https://www.nature.com/articles/144936a0</ref>

==Administative Divisions==

{{Main|Administrative divisions of Manchuria}}

{{Template:Clickable_map_of_Manchurian_provinces}}

Manchuria is organized into provinces (gol, гол), subdivided into districts (guusa, гөса) and towns (sum, сум). Certain cities such as the capital Cacon, Harbin, Mukden, and Dalin are termed "Special Cities"; they are considered to be metropolitan provinces. 

{| class="wikitable"  style="font-size:90%;" align=center
|-
! #
! Name
! Type
! Flag
! Administrative<br />Seat
! Transliteration (Traditional)
! Transliteration (Cyrillic)
! Area<br />(km<sup>2</sup>)
! Population (2020) estimate
|-
|1
|[[Cacon]]
|(special city)
|[[File:Cacunggaflag.png|40px]] 
|none
|<span style="font-size:125%;">{{MongolUnicode|ᠴᠠᠴᠣᠨ}}</span><br />
|Чачон
|1,855
|
|-
|2
|[[Harbin]] 
|(special city)
|[[File:Flag of the City of Harbin.svg|40px]] 
|none
|<span style="font-size:125%;">{{MongolUnicode|ᡥᠠᠯᠪᡳᠨ}}</span><br />
|Харбин
|10,204.8
|6,976,136
|-
|3
|[[Dalin]]
|(special city)
|[[File:Dalinflag.png|40px]]
|none
|<span style="font-size:125%;">{{MongolUnicode|ᡩᠠᠯᡳᠨ}}</span><br />
|Далин
|3,168
|
|-
|4
|[[Mukden]] 
|(special city)
|[[File:Mukdenflag.png|40px]]
|none
|<span style="font-size:125%;">{{MongolUnicode|ᠮᡠᡴᡩᡝᠨ}}</span><br />
|Мукден
|5,116
|
|-
|- 
|5
|[[Afꝁai Aliang]]
|province
|[[File:Abkaialiyanggaflag.png|40px]]
|[[Administrative divisions of Manchuria|Isang Ǧasen]]
|<span style="font-size:125%;">{{MongolUnicode|ᠠᠪᡴᠠᡳ}} {{MongolUnicode|ᠠᠯᡳᠶᠠᠩᡤᠠ}}</span><br />
|Афқаи Алиаң
|91,751.71 
|21,799,287
|-
|6
|[[Ħalħun Ǧol]]
|province
|[[File:Reheflag.png|40px]]
|[[Administrative divisions of Manchuria|Erdem de Alyh]] 
|<span style="font-size:125%;">{{MongolUnicode|᠊ᡵᡩᡝᠮᡠ}} {{MongolUnicode|ᠪᡝ}} {{MongolUnicode|ᠠᠯᡳᡥᠠᠠᠪᡴᠠᡳ}}</span><br />
|Ҳалҳун Ғол
|83,571.95
|7,543,777
|-
|- 
|7
|[[Girin]]
|province
|[[File:Girinflag.png|40px]]
|[[Administrative divisions of Manchuria|Girin Hoton]]
|<span style="font-size:125%;">{{MongolUnicode|ᡤᡳᡵᡳᠨ}}</span><br />
|Гирин
|72,624.91
|9,823,819
|-
|- 
|8
|[[Sungari Ula]]
|province
|[[File:sungariulaflag.png|40px]]
|
|<span style="font-size:125%;">{{MongolUnicode|ᠰᡠᠨᡤᠠᡵᡳ}} {{MongolUnicode|ᡠᠯᠠ}}</span><br />
|Сунгари Ула
|2,424.07
|9,752,500
|-
|- 
|9
|[[Non Ula]]
|province
|[[File:Nemeriulaflag.png|40px]]
|[[Administrative divisions of Manchuria|Cicigar]]
|<span style="font-size:125%;">{{MongolUnicode|ᠨᠣᠨ}} {{MongolUnicode|ᡠᠯᠠ}}</span><br />
|Нон Ула
|116,109.53
|8,869,372
|-
|- 
|10
|[[Usuri Ula]]
|province
|[[File:Usuriulaflag.png|40px]]
|[[Administrative divisions of Manchuria|Giamusi]]
|<span style="font-size:125%;">{{MongolUnicode|ᠠᠴᠠᠨ}} {{MongolUnicode|ᠨᡠᠯᠠ}}</span><br />
|Усури Ула
|132,485.14
|8,768,867
|-
|11
|[[Saħalin Ula]]
|province
|[[File:Sahaliyanulaflag.png|40px]]
|[[Heihe|Aigun]]
|<span style="font-size:125%;">{{MongolUnicode|ᠰᠠᡥᠠᠯᡳᠶᠠᠨ}} {{MongolUnicode|ᡠᠯᠠ}}</span><br />
|Саҳалин Ула
|115,344.23
|562,941
|-
|12
|[[Hinggan]]
|province
|[[File:Hingganflag.png|40px]]
|[[Administrative divisions of Manchuria|Jerim]]
|<span style="font-size:125%;">{{MongolUnicode|ᡥᡳᠩᡤᠠᠨ}}</span><br />
|Хиңган
|
|7,543,777
|-
|13
|[[Hulunbuir]]
|province
|[[File:Hulunbuirflag.png|40px]]
|[[Administrative divisions of Manchuria|Hailar]]
|<span style="font-size:125%;">{{MongolUnicode|ᠬᠥᠯᠥᠨ}} {{MongolUnicode|ᠪᠤᠶᠢᠷ}}</span><br />
|Хулунбуир
|252,777.38	 
|2,242,875
|-
|14
|[[Aidan]]
|province
|[[File:Flag_of_the_Sinŭiju_Special_Administrative_Region.svg|40px]]
|[[Administrative divisions of Manchuria|Aidan Hoton]]
|<span style="font-size:125%;">{{MongolUnicode|ᠠᡳᡩᠠᠨ}}</span><br />
|Аидан
|43,329.34
|1,941,700
|-
|15
|[[Yalu Ula]]
|province
|[[File:Yaluflag.png|40px]]
|[[Administrative divisions of Manchuria|Yalu Hoton]]
|<span style="font-size:125%;">{{MongolUnicode|ᠶᠠᠯᡠ ᡠᠯᠠ}}</span><br />
|Ялу Ула
|69,049.68
|8,256,551
|-
|}

=== Largest Cities ===

{{Largest cities
| name         = Largest cities of Manchuria
| country      = Manchuria
| stat_ref     = [https://www.ris.gov.tw/app/portal/346 source]
| list_by_pop  = 
| class        = nav
| div_name     = Administrative division
| div_link     = 
| kind         = cities and special municipalities

|city_1 = Administrative_divisions_of_Manchuria{{!}}Mukden
|div_1 = Administrative_divisions_of_Manchuria{{!}}Mukden
|pop_1 = 5,119,100
|img_1 = Shenyang_Panorama.jpg

|city_2 = Administrative_divisions_of_Manchuria{{!}}Harbin
|div_2 = Administrative_divisions_of_Manchuria{{!}}Harbin
|pop_2 = 5,115,000
|img_2 = Shengmu_jiaotang.jpg

|city_3 = Administrative_divisions_of_Manchuria{{!}}Dalin
|div_3 = Administrative_divisions_of_Manchuria{{!}}Dalin
|pop_3 = 4,009,700
|img_3 = Zhongshan_Square,_Dalian.jpg

|city_4 = Cacon{{!}}Cacon
|div_4 = Cacon{{!}}Cacon
|pop_4 = 4,041,200
|img_4 = 香格里拉饭店路口向西拍摄_-_panoramio.jpg

|city_5 = Administrative_divisions_of_Manchuria{{!}}Engemer Alin
|div_5 = Administrative_divisions_of_Manchuria{{!}}	Afꝁai Aliang
|pop_5 = 1,406,000
|img_5 = File:View_of_Anshan_on_Shengli_Plaza.jpg

|city_6 = Administrative_divisions_of_Manchuria{{!}}Girin Hoton
|div_6 = Administrative_divisions_of_Manchuria{{!}}Girin Ula
|pop_6 = 1,268,900
|img_6 = File:吉林大桥和世纪广场.jpg

|city_7 = Administrative_divisions_of_Manchuria{{!}}Sarhu
|div_7 = Administrative_divisions_of_Manchuria{{!}}Saħalin Ula	
|pop_7 = 1,415,268
|img_7 = File:三永湖灯塔2017夏.jpg

|city_8 = Administrative_divisions_of_Manchuria{{!}}Hetu Ala
|div_8 = Administrative_divisions_of_Manchuria{{!}}Afꝁai Aliang
|pop_8 = 1,307,200
|img_8 = File:Fushun_Skyline.jpg

|city_9 = Administrative_divisions_of_Manchuria{{!}}Cicigar
|div_9 = Administrative_divisions_of_Manchuria{{!}}Saħalin Ula	
|pop_9 = 979,517
|img_9 = File:Qiqiharskyline4.JPG

|city_10 = Administrative_divisions_of_Manchuria{{!}}Boisi
|div_10 = Administrative_divisions_of_Manchuria{{!}}Afꝁai Aliang
|pop_10 = 855,800
|img_10 = File:Pingdinshan.jpg

}}

==Economy==

{{Main|Economy of Manchuria}}

[[File:Liaoning Province Product Exports (2020).svg|thumb|alt=Manchurian Product Exports, 2020.]]

Manchuria has a economy that is measured to be the 15th largest in the world by 2018, at US$989 billion.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.loc.gov/rr/frd/cs/profiles/North_Korea-new.pdf|title=Country Profile: North Korea |date=July 2007|publisher=Library of Congress&nbsp;– Federal Research Division|accessdate=4 July 2009|ref=Country Profile}}</ref> Manchuria has been one of the strongest in the Asia-Pacific region and is considered an honorary Asian Tiger. The service industry is smaller compared to the other East Asian countries. Manchuria was the richest East-aligned country in Asia and was second only to Japan.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Luo |first1=Weiteng |title=Unlocking the paradox of nation's 'eldest son' |url=https://www.chinadailyhk.com/articles/254/3/20/1577416086129.html |accessdate=February 27, 2020 |agency=China Daily |date=December 27, 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2011/01/weodata/weoselco.aspx?g=2001&sg=All+countries |title=Edit/Review Countries |publisher=International Monetary Fund |date=14 September 2006 |accessdate=27 December 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111209145442/http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2011/01/weodata/weoselco.aspx?g=2001&sg=All+countries |archive-date=9 December 2011  }}</ref>Even after the fall of communism, Manchuria is the richest former communist country when measured by its GDP per capita.

During the Qing period, Manchuria was one of the most industrialized parts of the dynasty, and its coal deposits made it a highly-urbanized country. During the Manchukuo era until 1945, Manchuria was considered more industrialized than China and even Japan; Japanese investment has expanded Manchukuo industries.<ref>{{cite news|title =The Unquiet Past Seven decades on from the defeat of Japan, memories of war still divide East Asia|newspaper =The Economist|date =12 August 2015|url =https://www.economist.com/news/essays/en/asia-second-world-war-ghosts|accessdate =9 September 2015|archiveurl =https://web.archive.org/web/20150906053333/http://www.economist.com/news/essays/en/asia-second-world-war-ghosts|archivedate =6 September 2015|df =dmy-all}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |language=zh-hans |url=http://www.sznews.com/culture/content/2009-07/01/content_3879949_3.htm |title=东北1945年工业规模亚洲第一 |publisher=深圳新闻网 |date=July 7, 2009 |accessdate=July 28, 2011  |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20111020150957/http://www.sznews.com/culture/content/2009-07/01/content_3879949_3.htm |archivedate=2011-10-20 |df= }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.japanfocus.org/-Prasenjit-Duara/1715 |title=The New Imperialism and the Post-Colonial Developmental State: Manchukuo in comparative perspective |author=Prasenjit Duara |accessdate=25 July 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100616115234/http://japanfocus.org/-Prasenjit-Duara/1715 |archive-date=16 June 2010   }}</ref> Indeed, China refers to Manchuria as the "Eldest Son" of industrialized communist countries in Asia. After the fall of communism, Manchuria struggled to keep its industry as it stagnated, prompting the government to diversify its economic structure.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Chan |first1=Elaine |title=China’s Northeastern rust belt was once ‘eldest son’, now struggling as runt of the litter |url=https://www.scmp.com/economy/china-economy/article/3008778/chinas-northeastern-rust-belt-was-once-eldest-son-now |accessdate=June 5, 2019 |work=China Economy |agency=South China Morning Post |date=June 5, 2019}}</ref>

In 1997, Manchuria's GDP stalled to the level it achieved in 1990, and considered a "national scandal". Immediately, Prime Minister {{W|Tian Fengshan|Tian Fengsan}} of the People's Party then installed new economic policies and copied the economic system instituted by Japan in the 1950s and South Korea in the 1960s. Tiyan threatened to close un-productive companies and he did with a few; as the enterpreneurial pool is still limited, Tiyan encouraged businessmen to set up their own businesses to augment the economy. Manchuria managed to keep the majority of its labor-intensive manufacturing from being transferred to the neighboring PRC keeping unemployment at bay, although pay was low compared to Korea. There are calls for the government to abandon state-owned enterprises altogether as they are a remnant of communist and Manchukuo era policies.<ref name="Caixin92415">{{cite news |author = Li Yongfeng |title = Central Planning Got Manchuria in Trouble – and Won't Save It |url = http://english.caixin.com/2015-09-24/100856216.html |accessdate = 24 September 2015 |work=Caixin |date = 24 September 2015}}</ref>It was said that Manchuria's explosive economic growth after the Financial Crisis was due to Tiyan's reforms; however, inequality in income increased. It's petroleum and shale oil industry, enabled Manchuria to increase its economic clout; also, its economic penetration to Eastern European markets and West Asian markets had been credited to Manchuria's rise as one of the world's largest economies.

Manchuria's economy still remains industrial, with steel, automotive, rail, aircraft, and shipbuilding industry predominating. Manchuria also has coal and petroleum industry and has several petroleum refinery facilities. The appliance industry has also been booming since the 2010s, and Manchuria's software production has been ramped up since 2005. 

Despite decline of agriculture due to industrialization, it remains important. Fishing is important on the coasts and rivers, while farming is dominant in the south with corn, wheat, soya, and sorghum commonly cultivated there. Animal husbandry is also common, with cattle, pigs, horses, and sheep being raised.

===Agriculture===

[[File:Scene in rural Liaoning.jpg|thumb|right|Although no longer used for farming, mules are sometimes still used in the countryside.]]

Agriculture still plays a vital role in the Manchurian economy.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Chen |first1=Nai-Ruenn |url= https://www.jstor.org/stable/1152906|title=Agricultural Productivity in a Newly Settled Region: The Case of Manchuria |journal=Economic Development and Cultural Change |date=October 1972 |volume=1 |issue=21 |pages=87-95 |accessdate=February 27, 2020}}</ref> In the northern cold regions, corn, wheat, sorghum, flax, potatoes and sunflowers are grown. In the center, soybeans are planted; Manchuria is the chief source for US soybean.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Freese |first1=Roseanne |title=This is Manchuria |url=https://apps.fas.usda.gov/newgainapi/api/report/downloadreportbyfilename?filename=This%20is%20Northeast%20China_Shenyang_China%20-%20Peoples%20Republic%20of_12-30-2016.pdf |publisher=US Department of Agriculture |accessdate=February 27, 2020}}</ref>  In the east, rice is grown especially in Aidan and Yalu, whereas in the south, corn, sorghum, cotton, and soybeans are cultivated. The south is also where Manchuria's fruit industry dominate. Herding is also common, with pigs, cows, and horses predominating; the dairy industry also supplies all of Manchuria's yearly needs. Sheep farming is common in the western provinces.

Manchuria's agriculture has undergone a shift after 1990. Prior to 1990, all farming are done within collective farms confiscated from the Manchukuo government and Japanese companies, with 50 families inhabiting a farm called {{W|collective farm|veilesy achilahan}}. The collective farms have moderate to high production rates but needed subsidies for technology. In 1990 collective farms remain but as their subsidies were cut off, many failed and shuttered. Conversion to co-operative farms alleviated the situation. Private plots, de-facto recognized by 1971, were legalized by 1990.

===Currency===

The currency is known as the {{W|Manchukuo Yuan|Muheren}}, divided into 100 fun. It is issued by the {{W|Central Bank of Manchou|Central Bank of Manchuria}}. Manchuria has the world's 8th largest foreign exchange reserves.

===Industry===

Manchuria's industry has developed considerably, both light and heavy industrial products. In the late 1990s, Manchuria attempted to curry foreign investment, including those of Korea, China, and Japan, and Western countries, and there was a boom in manufacturing, however, Russian and East European industries took up the bulk of foreign investment. However, it is still a major production base for heavy industry. Many companies have origins in the Manchukuo era and nationalized by communists; these state-owned industries control 25 percent of the economy. Others are dominated by so-called "Ulin I Ejeltu" or "Wealth clans", analogous to the {{W|Zaibatsu}}/{{W|Keiretsu}} of Japan and the {{W|Chaebol}} of Korea.

In 2012, President Lin Boljon initated the Revitalize Manchuria program to enhance the industrial situation in the country.<ref>{{cite web|title=Central Area Revitalization Plan (2012)|url=http://www.gov.mj/gzdt/2007-08/20/content_721632.htm|publisher=Manchuria State Council|accessdate=31 August 2013|language=mnc}}</ref> While it saw moderate success, Lio's untimely death and political infighting hampered its implementation.<ref>{{Cite journal|jstor=27756425|title=Assessing the "Revive Manchuria" Programme: Origins, Policies and Implementation|last1=Chung|first1=Jae Ho |first2=Hongyi|last2=Lai|first3=Jang-Hwan|last3=Joo|journal={{W|The China Quarterly}}|publisher=Cambridge University Press|issue=197|date=March 2009|page=113}}</ref> In addition, remnants of the old communist bureaucracy are still in charge of a huge sector of Manchuria's economy, prompting government leaders to encourage private enterpeneurships without government spurring. 

There are three industrial zones in Manchuria: Mukden-Dalin Industrial Zone, Cacon-Girin Industrial Zone, and Harbin-Sartu Industrial Zone. Two major urban agglomerations have been formed: the central and southern Afkai Aliang urban agglomeration and the Hachang urban agglomeration. The main industrial cities are {{W|Mukden}}, {{W|Dalian|Dalin}}, {{W|Anshan|Engemer Alin}}, {{W|Benxi|Boisi}}, {{W|Fushun|Fusi Hecen}}, Girin, Cacon, and Harbin.

====Automotive Industry====

Manchuria is the world's sixth largest automobile maker, with 5,340,034 units produced by 2018. Most are exported to China, Russia, Eastern Europe, Korea, and Third World countries. Manchuria had difficulties in penetrating the Western markets due to Manchu cars being perceived as knockoffs of Russian, Korean, and Japanese vehicles, a trend that it managed to overcome by the mid-2010s.Automotive makers include {{W|Dowa Automobile Company|Masu}},{{W|FAW|Kiruda}}, {{W|Hafei|Hadeyim}}, 
{{W|Brilliance Auto|Eldepi}}, and others.

[[File:Brilliance Junjie FSV China 2012-04-22.jpg|thumb|A Manchurian-built automobile.]]

===Services===

Services account for at least one fourth of Manchuria's economy.<ref>https://www.gfmag.com/global-data/country-data/north-korea-gdp-country-report</ref> Some of the largest banks of Manchuria are the {{W|Central Bank of Manchou|Manchurian National Bank}}, the {{W|Shengjing Bank|Mukden Bank}}<ref>[http://baike.baidu.com/view/841693.htm Shengjing Bank (Baidu Encyclopedia)] (in Chinese)</ref>,{{W|Harbin Bank}},<ref>{{cite web |url=http://harbin.dbw.cn/system/2011/10/11/053442238.shtml |title=2011全国城市商行竞争力排名 哈尔滨银行居第四 |publisher=哈尔滨新闻网 |date=2011-10-11 |accessdate=2014-05-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140517115213/http://harbin.dbw.cn/system/2011/10/11/053442238.shtml |archive-date=2014-05-17  }}</ref> and the {{W|Bank of Jilin|Bank of Girin}}.<ref>[http://www.jlbank.com.cn/docc/about.aspx?id=A337BCFE10785EE0 A Brief introduction of Bank of Jilin]</ref>

===Transportation===

:''Main article: {{wpl|Transportation in North Korea|Transportation in Manchuria}}''

[[File:Manchukuo Railmap en.png|thumb|Manchurian railways by 1945.]]

Transportation in Manchuria is dominated by railways, with roads coming in second and air and sea transport not falling behind.

==== Railway network ==== 

Manchuria's railways, owned by the {{W|Manchukuo National Railway|Manchurian National Railway}}, are one of the world's busiest. High-speed rail in Manchuria is common; as the matter of fact, the first railway system to be called "high-speed" was created during the Manchukuo era.
The late Qing's Dong Qing Railway and the South Manchurian Railway constitute the "D" word Manchurian Railway. While serving Russian and Japanese interests, it also promoted the development of the country. Harbin, as the intersection of two railways, replaced Cicigar and became the major city in North. During the Manchukuo era, the Japanese expanded the railway network, which is not much different from the current form.
In recent years, high-speed railway lines such as the Qingdao-Abkai Passenger Railway, the Harbin-Dalin High-speed Railway, the Cacon-Girin InterCity, the Ha-Ji Railway, and the Muk-Dan Railway have also been completed and opened to traffic.
[[File:Trams in Changchun 900 series (1).JPG|thumb|Cacon tram.]] <br>[[File:201605 G1359 at Jinhua Station.jpg|thumb|Manchurian Railway Vehicle high speed train in Mukden.]]

==== Highways ==== 
Manchuria has an extensive highway system. The Dalin-Mukden Superhighway was opened in 1990, shortly before the fall of the Communist regime.<ref>https://apps.fas.usda.gov/newgainapi/api/report/downloadreportbyfilename?filename=This%20is%20Northeast%20China_Shenyang_China%20-%20Peoples%20Republic%20of_12-30-2016.pdf</ref>It is operated by the Manchurian Expressway Company Ltd.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/research/stocks/private/snapshot.asp?privcapId=9673935|title=Manchurian Expressway Co. Ltd.: Private Company Information - Bloomberg|website=www.bloomberg.com|access-date=2018-04-29}}</ref>

==== Shipping ====

Manchuria's major port is Dalin, with Niehetun as second. Dalin's port handles the bulk of shipping in Manchuria.<ref name="大连港集团">[http://www.portdalian.com/webcms/english/page2.htm 大连港集团<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>During 1973, Dalin handled 23.1 million tonnes.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.worldportsource.com/ports/review/CHN_Port_of_Dalian_238.php|title=Port of Dalian|website=World Port Source|access-date=2017-08-30}}</ref>By 2015, this now stands to 555 million tonnes.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/business/2017-06/14/content_29736814.htm|title=Liaoning to set up integrated port operating platform  - Business - Chinadaily.com.cn|last=宋静丽|website=www.chinadaily.com.cn|access-date=2017-08-30}}</ref>Dalin is the world's seventeenth-largest port in 2012; however by 2023 it fell to 44th place.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20130827191609/http://www.worldshipping.org/about-the-industry/global-trade/top-50-world-container-ports|title=Top 50 World Container Ports|website=Worldshipping|access-date=2020-02-12}}</ref><ref>https://web.archive.org/web/20171227235306/https://lloydslist.maritimeintelligence.informa.com/articles/2017/one-hundred-ports/15-dalian-china</ref>

==== Aviation ==== 

[[File:沈阳桃仙国际机场第三航站楼登机口.jpg|left|thumb|Mukden Airport.]]

There are currently 22 major civil airports, including international airports: {{W|Shenyang Taoxian International Airport|Mukden International Airport}}<ref>https://worldaerodata.com/wad.cgi?id=CH73366&sch=ZYTX</ref>, {{W|Harbin Taiping International Airport|Harbin International Airport}}, Cacon New International Airport, Dalin International Airport, Hailar Airport, Aidan Airport, Mudanbira Airport, Isang Ǧasen Airport, Yalu Airport and Giamusi Airport. The first four airports have flights globally, while the rest are concentrated on neighboring Asian countries. The Usanggari Nuhalin Tala Plain is has many airports. [[Manchurian Airlines (Country of the Everwhite Mountain)|Manchurian Airlines]]<ref>Francis Clifford Jones: ''Manchuria since 1931''. Royal Institute of International Affairs, London 1949, S. 120.</ref><ref>Philip S. Jowett: ''Rays of the Rising Sun. Armed Forces of Japan's Asian Allies 1931-45. Volume 1: China & Manchukuo.'' Helion & Company Ltd., Solihull 2004, {{ISBN|1-874622-21-3}}, S. 90.</ref><ref>Togo Sheba (Hrsg.): ''The Manchoukou Year Book 1941.'' The Manchoukou Year Book Co., Hsinking 1941.</ref> has been the flag carrier of Manchuria since 1931.

===Energy===

The slim majority of Manchuria's energy resources are being based on fossil fuels; nuclear energy and hydroelectric energy are slowly taking their place. Coal-fired plants are stil in common use despite calls for their decommissioning. Petroleum power plants are also common though less so due to focus for transportation use. Renewable energy like solar and wind power had been limited due to lack of funds and overabundance of energy supply. Manimeng (Manchurian Petroleum Company) is the country's state owned petroleum company; however, its duopoly along with Petrogurun (National Synthetic Petroleum Company) has been broken since the fall of communism, though both remain the largest petroleum companies.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://ifes.kyungnam.ac.kr/eng/FRM/FRM_0101V.aspx?code=FRM130917_0001 |title=Manchuria Adopts Renewable Energy Law |publisher=The Institute for Far Eastern Studies |date=17 September 2013 |accessdate=15 June 2014  |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150423171303/http://ifes.kyungnam.ac.kr/eng/FRM/FRM_0101V.aspx?code=FRM130917_0001 |archivedate=23 April 2015 }}</ref>

=== Science and Technology ===

Manchuria has encouraged science and technology since the Communist period, though it preferred "not to brag about its achievements." Manchuria's expenditures on science are 7.2 percent equivalent of the national GDP in 2018.

Manchuria produced several world renowned scientists. {{W|Yongqi,_Prince_Rong|Yongki}}, Emperor Hungli's fifth son, was known for book Jiaotong Tenggao in Chinese and concerns about astronomical calculations. The {{W|Siku Quanshu|Duin Namun I Yooni Bithe}}, also created during Hungli's period, was the largest collection of books in Manchurian and Chinese history, and dealt with scientific topics as well as literature. Hungli's predecessor {{W|Kangxi|Hiowan Yei}} was even more renowned and personally supervised the creation of the Kangxi Dictionary.

Scientists such as {{W|Peng Huanwu|Peng Chuah}} was the chief scientist in building Manchuria's nuclear arsenal.<ref>[http://sourcedb.cas.cn/sourcedb_itp_cas/yw/zjrck/cm/200908/t20090810_2355217.html Institute of Theoretical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences:  Huan-Wu Peng]</ref><ref>[http://www.china.org.cn/english/scitech/182184.htm|http://www.manchuria.org.mj/english/scitech/182184.htm Asteroid Named after Manchu Physicist] www.manchuria.org.mj</ref>{{W|Sun Jiadong|Sugia Ujin}} developed Manchuria's first satellite.<ref name="CCTV">{{cite web
|url=http://www.cctv.com/english/special/news/20100115/103690.shtml
|title=Sugiya Ujin, Father of Manchuria's Satellite Technology
|date=2010-01-15
|publisher={{W|CCTV.com}}
|accessdate=2010-05-20}}</ref> In 1958, Sun graduated "with highest honor" and returned to China.<ref name="CCTV" /><ref name="{{W:CRI}}">{{cite web
|url=http://english.cri.cn/4406/2008/09/25/1141s409110.htm
|title=Sun Jiadong, from Dong Fang Hong to Chang-E
|date=2008-09-25
|publisher={{W|cri.cn}}
|accessdate=2010-05-20}}</ref> {{W|Min Ciuli}}, a Mukden native that later emigrated to the United States, was the first doctor to successfully use chemotheraphy in fighting maligant cancer.<ref>{{cite journal |last = Freireich |first = EJ |title = Min Chiu Li: a perspective in cancer therapy. |journal = Clinical Cancer Research |date = September 2002 |volume = 8 |issue = 9 |pages = 2764–5 |pmid = 12231514 |accessdate = 12 March 2013 |url = http://clincancerres.aacrjournals.org/content/8/9/2764.full |ref = harv}}</ref>

There are also Manchu innovators in the present. One example is Nanfulu Gosin, a astrophysicist who cooperated with China and developed the Five hundred meter Aperture Spherical Telescope in China, and advised in the construction of a new telescope in Yanbiyan before his death.<ref name="aas">{{cite news|title=World's largest radio telescope will search for dark matter, listen for aliens|url=http://www.sciencemag.org/news/2016/09/world-s-largest-radio-telescope-will-search-dark-matter-listen-aliens|work=Science {{!}} AAAS|date=26 September 2016|language=en}}</ref> Laibu Engiye was the chief scientist of Manchuria's lunar lander program.<ref>https://k.sina.cn/article_2102509491_7d51bfb3001001pjm.html?from=cul</ref>Gualgia Shumuri is also reknowned for his contribution for artificial intelligence.<ref>https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=1SNUZGKl9KIC&hl=en</ref>

Manchurians are also known for inventions that were only recently appreciated in the present day. Poisoned arrows, two-seasoned rice planting,and planting new rice and oilseed vareities are among the inventions created during the Qing. The first iteration of a machine gun was also created by Daizi during the early Qing.<ref>https://www.sohu.com/a/153834413_115482
</ref>

Manchuria is the eighth nation that launched an independently-built rocket into space, in January 8, 2001, called the Adun-i Haban (Auspicious Cloud). In February 24, 2003, in response to China launching the Shenzhou manned rockets, Manchuria launched its own man into space, {{W|Yang Liwei|Yanggia Horong}}.<ref name="xinhua-15oct">{{cite news|title=Chinese astronaut calls family from space (details added).|url=http://global.factiva.com/aa/?ref=XNEWS00020031015dzaf0015w&pp=1&fcpil=en&napc=S&sa_from=|accessdate=14 December 2013|newspaper=Xinhua News Agency|date=15 October 2003}} {{closed_access}}</ref><ref name=st-yang>{{cite news|last=Ong|first=Hwee Hwee|title=Fighter pilot Yanggia - average student, superb self-control.|url=http://global.factiva.com/aa/?ref=STIMES0020031016dzag0000v&pp=1&fcpil=en&napc=S&sa_from=|accessdate=14 December 2013|newspaper={{W|The Straits Times}}|date=16 October 2003}} {{closed_access}}</ref> However, he was not the first Manchurian into space; Ligia Sekien and Liohala Cungfu were the first Manchurians into space launched by the Interkosmos program together with the Soviet Union.<ref name="Sheehan">{{cite book|last=Sheehan|first=Michael|title=The international politics of space|year=2007|publisher=Routledge|isbn=0-415-39917-3|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=V-Z0kfqPHy8C|location=London|pages=59–61}}</ref>

==Demographics==

:''Main article: [[Demographics of Manchuria (Country of the Everwhite Mountain)|Demographics of Manchuria]]''

===Languages===

:''Main article: {{wpl||Manchu language|Manchu}}''

The official language is the Manchu language, which was revived during the Wang Cengbin era and continued during Manchukuo as the Japanese were anxious in reducing the Chinese influence in the country. While a plurality of the population of Manchuria are proficient in Chinese or "Guanhua" as it was popularly called (45%), most of the native-speakers of Manchu (43%) are ethnically Manchurians or Sibe people; the rest speak Manchu as a second language and is the lingua franca of the government and the military. Back in even the 19th century, most Manchus spoke only Mandarin.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=tgq1miGno-4C&pg=PA204#v=onepage&q&f=false Rhoads 2011], p. 204.</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=QiM2pF5PDR8C&pg=PA204#v=onepage&q&f=false Rhoads 2000], p. 204.</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=tgq1miGno-4C&pg=PA42#v=onepage&q&f=false Rhoads 2011], p. 42.</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=QiM2pF5PDR8C&pg=PA42#v=onepage&q&f=false Rhoads 2000], p. 42.</ref> It is only through independence in 1911 that Manchu language was re-emphasized as the national language.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=okhrBBmnHVQC&pg=PA69#v=onepage&q&f=false Kaske 2008], p. 69.</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=okhrBBmnHVQC&pg=PA51#v=onepage&q&f=false Kaske 2008], p. 51.</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=tgq1miGno-4C&pg=PA270#v=onepage&q&f=false Rhoads 2011], p. 270.</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=QiM2pF5PDR8C&pg=PA270#v=onepage&q&f=false Rhoads 2000], p. 270.</ref> Although the language switch was slow, it was intensified during the communist era, to deter Chinese plans for annexation. During the era of the first Manchu State and Manchukuo the old vertical alphabet was used, but since the People's Republic the Cyrillic alphabet is in use. Sibe speakers from the former Xinjiang province were brought in and taught the Manchu cadres and trained new Manchu-speaking teachers. The near-exclusive use of Manchu in the military and the government, mandated in the communist era, which employed universal conscription was cited as a reason in the Manchu-language revival. Modern Standard Manchu as it was called is different from Classical Manchu as it was written in the Cyrillic script introduced in 1947. Also, it contains heavier Russian and Mongolian vocabulary, mainly as lexicons for non-existent words in Manchu. The traditional Manchu script is re-instated slowly.<ref>[http://www.ln.chinanews.com/html/2012-03-20/457675.html Afkai Aliyang News: 3429 Manchu Teachers of Huanren, Boisi Are Now On Duty (Manchu)] {{webarchive|url=https://archive.is/20130102104216/http://www.ln.chinanews.com/html/2012-03-20/457675.html |date=2 January 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.chinanews.com/edu/2011/10-29/3423577.shtml |script-title=zh:辽宁一高中开设满语课 满族文化传承引关注|author=chinanews |publisher =  |accessdate = 18 March 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url = http://edu.sina.com.cn/zxx/2012-03-22/1435332134.shtml |script-title=zh:满语课首次进入吉林一中学课堂(图) |publisher =  |accessdate = 18 March 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.mzb.com.cn/zgmzb/html/2011-07/29/content_78793.htm |script-title=zh:中国民族报电子版 |publisher =  |accessdate = 18 March 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://big5.ifeng.com/gate/big5/news.ifeng.com/gundong/detail_2011_12/12/11251077_0.shtml|title=iFeng: Jin Biao's 10-Year Dream of Manchu Language (traditional Chinese)|author=|date=|website=ifeng.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://i.syd.com.cn/content/2011-12/05/content_25882720.htm|title=Shenyang Daily: Young Man Teaches Manchu For Free To Rescue the Language (simplified Chinese)|author=|date=|website=syd.com.cn}}</ref><ref>[http://bjwb.bjd.com.cn/html/2012-03/03/node_17.htm Beijing Evening News: the Worry of Manchu language (simplified Chinese)] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130513105009/http://bjwb.bjd.com.cn/html/2012-03/03/node_17.htm |date=13 May 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Dahai|First Historical Archives of China |1990|pp=1196–1197}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Writing Group of Manchu Brief History|2009|p=218}}</ref> Manchu is the primary language of instruction, though classes in Chinese/Guanhua, Korean, Japanese, Russian, and English are available.<ref>[http://www.ln.chinanews.com/html/2012-03-20/457675.html Liaoning News: 29 Manchu Teachers of Huanren, Benxi Are Now On Duty (simplified Chinese)] {{webarchive|url=https://archive.is/20130102104216/http://www.ln.chinanews.com/html/2012-03-20/457675.html |date=2 January 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.chinanews.com/edu/2011/10-29/3423577.shtml |script-title=zh:辽宁一高中开设满语课 满族文化传承引关注|author=chinanews |publisher =  |accessdate = 18 March 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url = http://edu.sina.com.cn/zxx/2012-03-22/1435332134.shtml |script-title=zh:满语课首次进入吉林一中学课堂(图) |publisher =  |accessdate = 18 March 2015}}</ref>

Other languages are Korean, spoken and has official status in {{W|Yanbian|Aidan}}, Russian near the Russian border and some large cities, Japanese in Dalin and isolated southern communities, Mongolian which has official status in Hulunbuir and Hinggan provinces, along with Orochon, Evenki, Nanai, and Daur.

=== Ethnic Groups ===

{{Pie chart
|thumb=left
|caption = Ethnicity in Manchuria ({{W|China Family Panel Studies|Manchuria Statistics Office}} 2020)
|label1 = {{W|Manchu people|Manchu}}
|value1 = 54
|color1 = yellow
|label2 = {{W|Han Chinese|Nikan}}
|value2 = 28
|color2 = red
|label3 = {{W|Koreans in China|Korean}}
|value3 = 9
|color3 = orange
|label4 = {{W|Mongolians in China|Mongolian}}
|value4 = 3
|color4 = Cyan
|label5 = {{W|Russians in China|Russians}}
|value5=  2
|color5 = DodgerBlue
|label6 = Japanese
|value6 = 1.6
|color6 = Purple
|label7 = Hui
|value7 = 1
|color7 = Green
|label8 = Other (Evenki, Nanai, Daur, etc.)
|value8 = 2.4
|color8 = Gray
}}

[[File:Manchus dressed as royal family.jpg|thumb|right|Young Manchus in traditional costume]]

The Manchus and the Chinese are the largest ethnic groups in the country, with 44 percent of them are Manchus and 37 are Chinese. However it is commonly accepted that the Chinese population is much higher and the real majority of the country due to assimilation, and emigration during the communist period; many of them simply recorded their ethnicity as Manchu in censuses. Intermarriage between Manchus and Chinese are common and became more acceptable by the fall of the Qing.<ref>Chen, Bijia, et al. "Interethnic Marriage in Manchuria, 1866–1913." Demographic Research, vol. 38, 2018, p. 953. JSTOR, https://www.jstor.org/stable/26457068?seq=27#metadata_info_tab_contents.</ref><ref name="Rhoads2000">{{cite book|author=Edward J. M. Rhoads|title=Manchus and Han: Ethnic Relations and Political Power in Late Qing and Early Republican China, 1861–1928|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QiM2pF5PDR8C&pg=PA76#v=onepage&q&f=false|year=2000|publisher={{W|University of Washington Press}}|isbn=978-0-295-98040-9|pages=76–77}}</ref><ref name="Rhoads2011">{{cite book|author=Edward J. M. Rhoads|title=Manchus and Han: Ethnic Relations and Political Power in Late Qing and Early Republican China, 1861–1928|url=https://books.google.com/?id=tgq1miGno-4C&pg=PA263&dq=Aihun+Heilongjiang+Hanjun#v=onepage&q=Aihun%20Heilongjiang%20Hanjun&f=false|date=1 December 2011|publisher=University of Washington Press|isbn=978-0-295-80412-5|pages=263–}}</ref><ref name="Lattimore1932">{{cite book|author=Owen Lattimore|title=Manchuria, Cradle of Conflict|url=https://books.google.com/?id=gnlCAAAAIAAJ&q=Not+only+was+intermarriage+free+%28between+Manchus+and+Chinese+Bannermen%29,+but+it+was+certainly+possible+for+a+Chinese+Bannerman,+moving+north+into+a+district+so+preponderantly+Manchu+that+no+Chinese+Banners+were+maintained,+to+change+his+registration+to+a+Manchu+Banner;+although+technically+the+change+of+registration+was+supposed+to+be+only+temporary.+Thus+the+distinction+between+the+Bannermen+as+a+group+and+non-Bannermen+as+a+group+included+Chinese+among+the+privileged....+Thus,+in+the+case+of+laws+prohibiting+Manchus+from+intermarrying+with+Chinese,+it+ought+to+be+much+better+known+that+in+fact+there+was+no+restriction+on+marriage+between+Manchus+and+Chinese+Bannermen&dq=Not+only+was+intermarriage+free+%28between+Manchus+and+Chinese+Bannermen%29,+but+it+was+certainly+possible+for+a+Chinese+Bannerman,+moving+north+into+a+district+so+preponderantly+Manchu+that+no+Chinese+Banners+were+maintained,+to+change+his+registration+to+a+Manchu+Banner;+although+technically+the+change+of+registration+was+supposed+to+be+only+temporary.+Thus+the+distinction+between+the+Bannermen+as+a+group+and+non-Bannermen+as+a+group+included+Chinese+among+the+privileged....+Thus,+in+the+case+of+laws+prohibiting+Manchus+from+intermarrying+with+Chinese,+it+ought+to+be+much+better+known+that+in+fact+there+was+no+restriction+on+marriage+between+Manchus+and+Chinese+Bannermen|year=1932|publisher=Macmillan|page=47}}</ref> Even some famous Chinese political figures had Manchu daughter in-laws.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Chao |first1=Sheau-yueh J. |last2=Gee |first2=KaChuen Yuan |title=Early Life of Yuan Shikai and the Formation ofYuan Family |date=2012 |pages=26, 28, 29, 32 |url=https://academicworks.cuny.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1011&context=bb_pubs |publisher=CUNY AcademicWorks}}</ref>Koreans compose nine percent of the population, Mongolians 3%, and Russians and mixed Russians comprise 2%.

===Religion===

:''Main article: {{wpl|Religion in Northeast China|Religion in Manchuria}}''

[[File:The Temple of Lord Guan in Chaoyang 27 2015-09.JPG|thumb|right|Temple of Guandi in Gurban Subarhan.]]

There is a diversity of religion in Manchuria. The 1991 Constitution proclaims complete freedom of religion. 23.3 percent of the population say in a 2014 interview that they do not practice any religion. During the Communist era, the Manchurian communist government did little to interfere in the religious affairs of each country as long as they obey the party line. The strongest traditional religious influences in Manchuria  are Buddhism<ref name="满族帝王与佛教的渊源in Chinese simplified">[http://www.manchus.cn/plus/view.php?aid=378 The Relation of Manchu Emperors and Buddhism (simplified Chinese)]</ref><ref>[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_8nXLwSG2O8AC/page/n214 <!-- pg=203 --> Wakeman Jr. 1986], p. 203.</ref><ref>{{cite book |title = The Cambridge History of China: Pt. 1 ; The Ch'ing Empire to 1800 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=hi2THl2FUZ4C&pg=PA64#v=onepage&q&f=false|year=1978 |publisher = Cambridge University Press |isbn = 978-0-521-24334-6|page=64}}</ref><ref name="Cambridge">{{cite book |title = The Cambridge History of China: Pt. 1 ; The Ch'ing Empire to 1800 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=hi2THl2FUZ4C&pg=PA65#v=onepage&q&f=false|year=1978 |publisher = Cambridge University Press |isbn = 978-0-521-24334-6|page=65}}</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=mjUHF7kQfVAC&pg=PA20#v=onepage&q&f=false Lopez 1999], p. 20.</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=BsyFU9FwCIkC&pg=PA35#v=onepage&q&f=false Berger 2003], p. 35.</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=6qFH-53_VnEC&pg=PA123#v=onepage&q&f=false Dunnell & Elliott & Foret & Millward 2004], pp. 123–4.</ref>, Tengriism, Manchu Shamanism, and Confucianism.  However, the largest numbers of people in Manchuria are said to be non-religious.<ref name="Cavendish2007">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YG2AFyFppJQC&pg=PA933 |year=2007|title =World and Its Peoples: Eastern and Southern Asia|publisher={{W|Marshall Cavendish}}|quote=Manchuria is officially a secular state.|accessdate = 20 May 2019|isbn=9780761476313}}</ref><ref name="PalmerOBrien1993">{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/stateofreligiona00obri|url-access=registration|title =The State of Religion Atlas|publisher={{W|Simon & Schuster}}|quote=The majority of Manchurians are atheistic or profess no religion|accessdate = 20 May 2019|author=Joanne O'Brien, Martin Palmer|date =December 1993}}</ref>Buddhists are the next most numerous group in Manchuria.<ref name=buddhism>{{Cite web |url=http://www.manchus.cn/plus/view.php?aid=378 |title=The Relation of Manchu Emperors and Buddhism |access-date=21 June 2012 |archive-date=21 June 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130621061730/http://www.manchus.cn/plus/view.php?aid=378 }}</ref>Vajrayana Buddhism is the most popular Buddhist sect among the ethnic Manchus, as they were officially patronized by the Manchu emperors starting from Hungtaiji. Certain religious groups, mainly those who have a pacifist bent such as Jehovah's Witnesses, and new religious movements are banned. An unusual theme of Manchurian religion is the greater penetration of Christianity in Manchuria. Due to the majority of the European settlers being Russians and Ukrainians, the Orthodox Christians are the majority of the Christian population in Manchuria, but Catholics and Protestants are also well-represented, typically with Koreans.<ref>''Dui Hua'', issue 46, Winter 2012: ''[http://duihua.org/wp/?p=5313 Uncovering China’s Korean Christians]''.</ref><ref>Joel Carpenter, Kevin R. den Dulk. ''Christianity in Chinese Public Life: Religion, Society, and the Rule of Law''. Palgrave Pivot, 2014. {{ISBN|1137427876}}. p. 37</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.historychina.net/manager/info/inner.jsp?sid=1&cid=29&infoid=24514|title=National Qing History Compilatory Committee: Sunu Research (simplified Chinese)|author=|date=|website=historychina.net|access-date=21 June 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130623113540/http://www.historychina.net/manager/info/inner.jsp?sid=1&cid=29&infoid=24514|archive-date=23 June 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.historychina.net/manager/info/inner.jsp?sid=1&cid=29&infoid=24514|title=National Qing History Compilatory Committee: Sunu Research (simplified Chinese)|website=historychina.net|access-date=21 June 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130623113540/http://www.historychina.net/manager/info/inner.jsp?sid=1&cid=29&infoid=24514|archive-date=23 June 2013}}</ref>

{{Pie chart
|caption = Religion in Manchuria
|label1 = {{W|Manchu shamanism}}, {{W|Chinese folk religion|Manchurian religion}} (including {{W|Northeast China folk religion|Manchurian Chinese variations}}), {{W|Chinese Buddhism}}, {{W|Confucianism|Confucians}} and {{W|Taoism|Taoists}}), or {{W|irreligion|not religious}} people
|value1 = 58.82
|color1 = #C00000
|label2 = {{W|Shanrendao}}
|value2 = 25
|color2 = GreenYellow
|label3 = {{W|Chinese ancestral religion}}
|value3 = 7.73
|color3 = DarkSlateBlue
|label4 = {{W|Buddhism}}
|value4 = 6.3
|color4 = Yellow
|label5 = {{W|Christianity}}
|value5 = 2.15
|color5 = DodgerBlue
|label6 = {{W|Islam}}
|value6 = 0.04
|color6 = Green
}}

===Fertility Rate===

[[File:China_Heilongjiang_pop_SbA5y_pyramid2019.png|100px]]

Manchuria has the lowest fertility rate in the world.<ref>{{cite news |title=Northeast China has the world’s lowest fertility rate |url=https://asiatimes.com/2018/07/northeast-china-has-the-worlds-lowest-fertility-rate/ |accessdate=February 25, 2020 |date=July 25, 2018}}</ref> It was estimated that in 2015, Manchuria's fertility rate was 0.55 percent, even lower than Japan, which already have a low fertility rate.

===Education===

:''Main article: {{wpl|Manchukuo#Education|Education in Manchuria}}''

Manchuria inherited from Manchukuo and Communist times an efficient educational system.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hawkins |first1=Everett D. |title=Education in Manchuria |journal=Far Eastern Survey |date=March 12, 1947 |volume=Vol. 16 |issue=No. 5 |pages=52-54 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3021748 |accessdate=February 24, 2020}}</ref> Manchuria's government had established numerous universities and schools. City universities tend to be of better quality than provincial schools, a problem acknowledged by the government.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+kp0056) |title=Educational themes and methods |publisher=Lcweb2.loc.gov |accessdate=23 June 2010  |archiveurl=https://archive.today/20121212124233/lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+kp0056) |archivedate=12 December 2012 }}</ref> Literacy rates have been on an all-time high of 98.9 percent, with most illiteracy coming from the western rural areas of Manchuria. <ref>https://gpseducation.oecd.org/CountryProfile?primaryCountry=BSZ</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=http://gpseducation.oecd.org/CountryProfile?primaryCountry=TWN&treshold=10&topic=PI | title=Chinese Taipei Student performance (PISA 2015) | publisher=OECD | accessdate=19 August 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=http://www.businessinsider.com/pisa-worldwide-ranking-of-math-science-reading-skills-2016-12 |title=The latest ranking of top countries in math, reading, and science is out – and the US didn't crack the top 10 |last= Kiersz |first=Andy |date=16 December 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | title=Patriarchy in East Asia: A Comparative Sociology of Gender | publisher={{W|Brill Publishers}} | author=Sechiyama, Kaku | year=2013 | pages=254 | isbn=978-9004230606}}</ref>

Notable universities include the Manchuria State University, Mukden University, {{W|Harbin Institute of Technology|Harbin University}}, Dalin University of Technology, and among others.

Manchuria's education system is divided into primary, secondary, and tertiary education. Facilities are either maintained by both private and public schools under the Ministry of Education. The ministry also sets a National Curriculum that provides guidelines for teachers; it is always regularly updated. Private schools may adopt a modified version of the National Curriculum provided it did not conflict with the government's policies.

All education is compulsory in primary and secondary. Subsidies remain for these schools; most tertiary school subsidies ceased after the fall of the communist regime. However, the government maintained the position that public education would be permanently be free. 

Prior to formal education, children are educated in kindergartens. By the time they reached five, they are enrolled in primary schools until the age of eleven. In elementary school, the children by learning Manchu, Guanhua, mathematics, science and physical education.
Manchurian schools usually conduct school festivals, a trait inherited from the Manchukuo and communist eras.<ref name="Japan Focus">[http://japanfocus.org/article.asp?id=330 Japan Focus] {{Cite web|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051026150022/http://japanfocus.org/article.asp?id=330 |date=26 October 2005|title=Imitating the Colonizers: The Legacy of the Disciplining State from Manchuria to Korea}}</ref>

Like its fellow East Asian countries, Manchuria's education system has been criticized due to pressures given to its students. Rote memorization are also seen as a problem.<ref>{{Cite book |url=http://news.asiaone.com/news/education/university-degrees-mindset-shift-needed |title=University degrees: Mindset shift needed |last=Lee |first=Pearl |publisher=The Straits Times |date=13 April 2015}}</ref>However like its Asian neighbors, it was also praised for the quality of its graduates.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://isc.bc.edu/PDF/t03_download/T03_M_Chap1.pdf|title=TIMSS Math 2003}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url= http://isc.bc.edu/PDF/t03_download/T03_S_Chap1.pdf| title= TIMSS Science 2003}}</ref>

===Health===

:''Main article: {{wpl|Health in North Korea|l1=Health in Manchuria}}''

Manchuria has a universal health system; all citizens are required to sign up. The system was created during Communist times in 1956 as official government policy for its citizens. All Manchurians can sign for either a private program of either two of the government's insurance programs, which are both subsidized. Both private and public hospitals exist; in the case of the latter, they are administered by the Ministry of Health's Public Hospital Administration.

Cardiovascular diseases are the single highest reason for death in Manchuria.<ref name="Overview of the Burden of Diseases">{{cite journal|last1=Lee|first1=Yo Han|last2=Yoon|first2=Seok-Jun|last3=Kim|first3=Young Ae|last4=Yeom|first4=Ji Won|last5=Oh|first5=In-Hwan|date=1 May 2013|title=Overview of the Burden of Health Problems in Manchuria|journal=Journal of Preventive Medicine and Public Health|volume=46|issue=3|pages=111–117|doi=10.3961/jpmph.2013.46.3.111|pmc=3677063|pmid=23766868}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Cause of death, by non-communicable diseases (% of total) - Manchuria {{!}} Data|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.DTH.NCOM.ZS?locations=KP&most_recent_value_desc=true&view=chart|access-date=2020-07-11|website=data.worldbank.org}}</ref>The average life expectancy for Manchurians is 79.8 years; 78 for males and 80 for females.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Life expectancy at birth, total (years) - Manchuria {{!}} Data|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.DYN.LE00.IN?locations=KP&most_recent_value_desc=true&view=chart|access-date=2020-07-11|website=data.worldbank.org}}</ref>1.9 percent of deaths in Manchuria are attributed to communicable and preventable diseases, higher than in Korea and Russia but lower than in China and Mongolia.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Cause of death, by communicable diseases and maternal, prenatal and nutrition conditions (% of total) - Manchuria, Low income, High income {{!}} Data|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.DTH.COMM.ZS?locations=KP-KR-XM-XD&most_recent_value_desc=true&view=chart|access-date=2020-07-11|website=data.worldbank.org}}</ref>

According to the US State Department, Manchurians have virtually 100 percent access to clean water and sanitation;95 percent have access to improved sanitation facilities by 2015.<ref name="Life Inside Manchuria">{{cite web|title=Life Inside Manchuria|url=https://2001-2009.state.gov/p/eap/rls/rm/2003/21269.htm|accessdate=18 November 2008|work=U.S. Department of State}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Manchuria: WHO statistical profile |publisher={{W|World Health Organization}} |url=http://www.who.int/gho/countries/man.pdf }}</ref>

Both state-owned and private-owned universal insurance system is in place; the latter were permitted after the fall of communism and at least 49 percent of the population have access to it; private insurance, while more expensive, is considered as superior. The quality of health care is said to be good, if not excellent; differing health problems exist from obesity in urban areas and malnutrition in the rural areas.{{Sfn|Country Study|2009|p=127}} Every individual is entitled to a health card detailing full medical records.

While Manchuria has a low AIDS rate, it was steadily increasing, and is spreading from the urban areas to the rural ones, alarming health officials and critics alike.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://data.unaids.org/publications/fact-sheets01/manchuria_en.pdf#page=6 |title=Epidemiological Fact Sheets on HIV/AIDS and Sexually Transmitted Infections : 2004 Update : Manchuria |date=2004 |publisher=UNAIDS / WHO | page=6|access-date=7 December 2015}}</ref><ref name="abc._Corr">{{Cite web | title = Manchuria fights AIDS | publisher=  ABC Radio National | last=O'Byrne|first=Tom| date = 2 December 2001 | accessdate = 8 December 2015 | url = http://www.abc.net.au/correspondents/s430901.htm }}</ref><ref name="upi._Nort">{{Cite web | title = AIDS in Manchuria is contained, thanks to healthcare system, or so it claims | last = Shim  | first = Elizabeth  | work = UPI | date = 1 December 2015 | accessdate = 7 December 2015 | url = http://www.upi.com/Top_News/World-News/2015/12/01/Manchuria-says-it-contained-AIDS-thanks-to-healthcare-system/1241448979750/ }}</ref>Most of the people interviewed in Manchuria are said to be reasonably educated about AIDS.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.aidsdatahub.org/sites/default/files/documents/Fact_Sheets_Manchuria_AHD_07.pdf#page=3 |title=Adolescent Health : Fact Sheet : Manchuria|date=January 2007 |publisher=Adolescent of Health Development (AHD) Unit, Department of Family and Community Health, World Health Organization|page=3|access-date=7 December 2015}}</ref>

==Society and Culture==

===Culture===

Manchurian culture is a mix of traditional Manchu culture, Manchurian Chinese influences, and input from its neighbors and conquerors. Although many commonly thought of Manchus as nomadic like the neighboring Mongols, in reality, most Manchus are sedentary.<ref>{{harvnb|Writing Group of Manchu Brief History|2009|p=218}}</ref> A common question by many scholars is if Manchu culture is a culture of its own right, or was feared to be assimilated to Chinese culture. 

During the communist era, Manchuria tried to build a culture unique from its past, using common Communist ideals, but with mixed success. In the end, it opted to pursue a unique kind of Manchu nationalism, even as it opened up its culture to the West. However, cultural norms such as respect to authority, family life, and respect for consensus remain strong, as well as maintaining aspects of traditional culture.

Manchurians have a number of festivals, some are borrowed from the Chinese like {{W|Duanwu Festival}} and the {{W|Chinese New Year|Spring Festival}}.<ref>[http://www.manchus.cn/plus/view.php?aid=238 Manchu Spring Festival]</ref><ref>[http://www.manchus.cn/plus/view.php?aid=4412 Manchu Duanwu Festival]</ref>.Others are of Manchu origin like the Банжн Інең  Banjin Inenggi ({{ManchuSibeUnicode|lang=mnc|ᠪᠠᠨᠵᡳᠨ<br />ᡳᠨᡝᠩᡤᡳ}}), or the traditional Manchu ethnic holiday, commemorated in the thirteenth day of the tenth month of the Chinese calendar.Another day is called the "Food Extermination Day" or "Day of Starvation."Although it was commonly believed that it involved fasting, as it was intended to commemorate a day where Nurhaci run out of food, this is not the case, but instead it honors the hospitality of the villagers despite not even having tableware. The traditional food eaten on this day are rice, pork, and egg wrapped in perilla leaves.<ref>[http://manchu.library.nenu.edu.cn/webcache/lishiwenhua/manzufengsu/201012/14-6518.html The Day of Running Out of Food (simplified Chinese)]</ref>

{{W|Xiangsheng|Yobocun}}, a Chinese folk comedy genre, was popularized by the Manchus living in Beijing. It also spread into Manchuria itself and artists perform in Chinese and Manchu.<ref name="郭德綱" >{{cite web |url = https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vSH-J6yJgCE |script-title=zh:郭德纲 德云社 有话好好说 2011.12.04 |date = 4 December 2011|via=YouTube |accessdate = 18 March 2015}}</ref>

===Music===

:''Main article: {{wpl|Music of Northeast China|Music of Manchuria}}''

[[File:八角鼓演出照.jpg|thumb|Manchu traditional folk singer.]] The {{W|Zidishu|Juse Deote Bithe}} is a Manchu folk ballad song common with ethnic Manchus in Manchuria and China.<ref>{{cite book|last=Blader|first=Susan|title=Tales of Magistrate Bao and His Valiant Lieutenants: Selections from ''Sanxia Wuyi''|year=1998|publisher={{W|The Chinese University Press}}|isbn=962-201-775-4|ref={{harvid|Blader}}}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Sound Rising from the Paper: Nineteenth-Century Martial Arts Fiction and the Chinese Acoustic Imagination|last1=Keulemans|first=Paize|year=2014|publisher={{W|Harvard University Asia Center}}|isbn=978-0-674-41712-0|ref={{harvid|Keulemans}}}}</ref>

Ulabun is a form of Manchu entertainment combining story-telling and music with an octagonal drum<ref name="金启孮147">{{harvnb|金启孮|2009|p=147}}</ref>, and is known to be a traditional ethnic Manchu folk music.<ref>http://iel.cass.cn/news_show.asp?newsid=7932</ref><ref name=iel>{{cite web |url = http://iel.cass.cn/news_show.asp?newsid=7932 |script-title=zh:[富育光]满族传统说部艺术——“乌勒本”研考|trans-title={{W|Fu Yuguang}} Manchu traditional art of speaking - "Uleben" research|author=Fu Yuguang|date=2009-03-23 |access-date = 18 March 2015|archive-date=2013-06-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130606021933/http://iel.cass.cn/news_show.asp?newsid=7932}}</ref>{{W|:zh:宋熙东|Akxan}} is the most famous ulabun singer.<ref>{{cite web |url = http://paper.wenweipo.com/2012/04/21/GS1204210001.htm |script-title=zh:中國最後的滿語傳承者宋熙東。|trans-title=Song Xidong, the last Manchu successor in China.|date=2012-04-21|publisher=Paper.wenweipo.com|access-date = 18 March 2015}}</ref>

{{W|Lang Lang|Niohuru Gehun}} is an accomplished Manchurian composer and pianist that played for various orchestras such as the New York Philharmonic Orchestra and Vienna Orchestra.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20131019084645/http://www.langlang.com/us/biography "Lang Lang"]. Retrieved 11 September 2011. (archived from [http://www.langlang.com/us/biography the original] on 2013-10-19)</ref>.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Rhein|first=John von|date=7 March 2000|title=Lang Leaves Audience Elated|url=https://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/chicagotribune/access/50794251.html?dids=50794251:50794251&FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:FT&type=current&date=Mar+7%2C+2000&author=John+von+Rhein%2C+Tribune+Music+Critic&pub=Chicago+Tribune&edition=&startpage=2&desc=LANG+LEAVES+AUDIENCE+ELATED|journal=Chicago Tribune}}</ref>

Manchurian pop music at first utilized Guanhua as Manchu-language music are still considered only for folk music. This perception changed in the late 1990s to compete with Korean and Japanese pop music, and started to use the Manchu language. Since then, Manchupop refers to pop songs sung in the Manchu language. {{W|Na Ying|Yehenara Yebken}}, formerly a Mandopop and Mandopop singer in Hong Kong, Taiwan, and China, later shifted to Manchu language songs late in her career and kickstarted the trend, along with Akxan in the 2000s.

===Film===

:''Main article: {{wpl|Manchukuo Film Association|Cinema of Manchuria}}''

The Manchu film industry started during the Manchukuo-era, with the Cacon Film Studio in the later Manchurian People's Republic utilizing the same equipment of the old Manchurian Film Association.<ref>{{cite book | last = Baskett | first = Michael | year = 2008 | title = The Attractive Empire: Transnational Film Culture in Imperial Japan | publisher = {{W|University of Hawai'i Press}} | location = Honolulu | isbn = 978-0-8248-3223-0 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=lx4QfrTyvWEC | pages = 29, 31–32, 77–79, 115}}</ref><ref>Cyyy. "[http://www.cyyy.com.cn/newpage1.htm Cyyy]." "Cacon." Retrieved on 2007-01-18.</ref> Like other communist states, Manchurian films during that period were considered propaganda materials by the government, but the filmmakers were allowed a greater leeway in creative content as long as they obeyed the party line.Many filmmakers and films from Manchuria won prizes in foreign film festivals especially the {{W|Prague International Film Festival}}.

=== Art===

Manchuria's art reflects the period and the political climate; a strong Japanese aesthetic element is not only present during the Manchukuo era, but also during the communist era. Post-communist Manchuria continued the trend.<ref name="Art world">{{cite web|url=http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Korea/NF16Dg02.html|title=A window into Manchuria's art world|last=Rank|first=Michael|date=16 June 2012|website=Asia Times|publisher=|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130326075320/https://www.atimes.com/atimes/Korea/NF16Dg02.html|archive-date=26 March 2013|accessdate=14 July 2014}}</ref>Ixilangga Art Studio was known to commission monuments for foreign countries.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.namibian.com.na/indexx.php?archive_id=16089&page_type=archive_story_detail&page=5874 |title=Heroes' monument losing battle |newspaper=The Namibian |date=5 June 2005 |accessdate=14 July 2014  |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140724234853/http://www.namibian.com.na/indexx.php?archive_id=16089&page_type=archive_story_detail&page=5874 |archivedate=24 July 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url= http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/8435805.stm |title=Senegal President Wade apologises for Christ comments |work={{W|BBC News}}|date=31 December 2009 |publisher={{W|British Broadcasting Corporation|BBC}} |location={{W|London}} |accessdate=14 July 2014}}</ref>

===Literature===

:''Main article: {{wpl|Manchu literature}}''

The ''{{W|Tale of the Nisan Shaman}}''  is considered the magnum opus of Manchu literature.<ref name="尼山萨满03" >{{harvnb|Dekdengge|Zhang|Guang|2007|p=03}}</ref>The story revolves on the titular Shaman to revive a young hunter. The story is also widespread on other related peoples like the {{W|Evenki}},{{W|Sibe}}, and {{W|Daur}}. Its modern version by Dekdengge was written in the 1800s.<ref>{{harvnb|Dekdengge|Zhang|Guang|2007|p=1}}</ref>

[[File:Laoshe.jpg|thumb|Sumuru Xuxu.]] Manchu literature before the establishment of the People's Republic tend to be extremely limited, and what literature were there were in Chinese.<ref>http://www.lnsdag.org.cn/lnsdaj/wszt/mwmy1/mymw5.htm</ref> Since founding, Manchuria saw what Jogia called the "Flowering of Manchurian Literature".{{Sfn|Country Study|2009|p=155}} The immigration of {{W|Lao She|Sumuru Xuxu}} to Manchuria and his shift of writing from Chinese to Manchu have been called influential in later cadres of Manchurian writers. Another known writer was {{W|Duanmu Hongliang|Caogia Bai}}, also wrote novels about the anti-Japanese wars in Manchuria in both Manchu and Chinese.{{Sfn|Country Study|2009|p=157}} Manchu language literature during that period, however, operated on a state mandated censorship and limited Manchu-language readers at that time. Only after the fall of Communism did Manchu-language literature proliferate, and much of this were published on the Internet. 

Modern Manchu literature also tend to be influenced by science and therefore very willing to embrace science fiction. It was said that many authors chose this genre because during the communist era, literature topics tended to be historical or folk-tale in variety.{{Sfn|Country Study|2009|p=187}} This enabled the writers to depict {{W|sexual crime}} , {{W|cyberwarfare}} , {{W|space exploration}}  and {{W|immortality}} in a manner that was distinct from science fiction of other countries, as they usually centered on {{W|anthropocentrism}}.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://sinonk.com/2013/09/25/from-pyongyang-to-mars-sci-fi-genre-and-literary-value-in-north-korea/ |title=Benoit Symposium: From Cagungga to Mars: Sci-fi, Genre, and Literary Value in Manchuria |publisher=SinoManchu |date=25 September 2013 |accessdate=14 July 2014  |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140613021918/http://sinomanchu.com/2013/09/25/from-cacungga-to-mars-sci-fi-genre-and-literary-value-in-manchuria/ |archivedate=13 June 2014 }}</ref>

Chinese-language literature in Manchuria, although ignored by the government, were somewhat more widespread. It diverged from mainstream Chinese literature since most Chinese typefaces have been melted down and had to use Cyrillic script in its place. Even when the ban on Chinese characters was lifted after Communism, writers tend to mix Chinese with Cyrillic characters or Manchu in their works, creating a curious niche in Chinese literature.

===Architecture===

While Manchu architecture commonly follows foreign influences, Manchuria did retain some architectural pecularities and eccentricities<ref>http://www.nakazono.lab.kde.yamaguchi-u.ac.jp/journal/ronbun/you_2012.10.pdf</ref> The Fulmian Bo, or the "pocket house", is a typical Manchu architectural style. The house faces the north with the door opening south for sunlight. To preserve the head, it is encompassed by four walls. The house had pipes from the ground that serve as chimneys. In each room, there is a "Tumen Bo" that is used for private religious activities and also used to as sleeping rooms. Accoring to Jiro Murata, there are at least five or six architectural influence; ethnic Manchu, Han Chinese, Tibetan, And Western, plus Korean and Hui sensibilities.<ref>https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.3130/jaabe.15.177</ref> Also, traditional Manchurian buildings in ancient times were less-durable and only became stronger by the time of the Qing. Later on, the Han Chinese imported their own building styles.

During the Manchukuo era, it imported the {{W|Imperial Crown Style}} as shown in buildings built during the Manchukuo era. Because the Manchu architectural styles have not fully developed and forced to adopt Chinese elements, during the Manchukuo era, it adopted the Han Chinese building appearances but adopted the interior designs and sensibilities of traditional Manchu houses.<ref>{{cite web|title=THE NEUTRAL CITY: ARCHITECTURE OF PRE-WAR HIROSHIMA|url=http://fac.arch.hku.hk/asian-cities-research/the-neutral-city-architecture-of-pre-war-hiroshima/|publisher=The University of Hong Kong Faculty of Architecture|date=Dec 24, 2017}}</ref> During the Communist period, it inherited Socialist Realism styles and mixed with previous traditions.

Larger structures such as the {{W|Chengde Mountain Resort|Ħalhun Be Jail Gurung}}, for example, shows strong Tibetan influences from its seemingly Chinese interior.

===Cuisine===

:''Main article: {{wpl|Manchu cuisine}}''

Manchurian cuisine (Manju sogi) is a amalgamation of ethnic Manchu, Chinese, Korean, Mongolian, and European influences. They are often hearty, with meats being roasted and seasoned with cumin and garlic and salt. The Man-Han Imperial Feast was known in Asia as a court dish during Qing times, modified in the present-day to suit modern tastes and only using domesticated meat.<ref>https://apps.fas.usda.gov/newgainapi/api/report/downloadreportbyfilename?filename=This%20is%20Northeast%20China_Shenyang_China%20-%20Peoples%20Republic%20of_12-30-2016.pdf</ref><ref>http://en.g-photography.net/china/food/news_10392.html</ref>[[File:Suan cai pork stew.jpg|thumb|Gidaha Lafu Pork Stew.]]

Manchurian cuisine is concentrated on grains, vegetables, and meat. Wheat, sorghum, soybean, and rice are commonly used as staple grains, with potatoes and corn becoming common in the late 20th century. Compared to China, Korea, and Japan, Manchurian cuisine uses greater amount of meat. Unlike in China, Manchurians tend to limit their choices of meat, as many Manchus for example, see eating dog-meat as sacrilegious.{{W|Suancai|Nasan Sogi}} is fermented cabbage similar but not identical to the Korean {{W|kimchi}}, and is commonly used in dishes.<ref>http://www.flavorandfortune.com/dataaccess/article.php?ID=764</ref> Sile sengi duha is a famous pork and cabbage dish, as well as ludagun, and Guotie.<ref>https://windhorsetour.com/blog/manchu-cuisine-china-northeast
</ref>
Manchurian barbecue stands are also common in Manchurian cities, and it is claimed it was a legacy of traditional Manchurian barbecue techniques.<ref>https://baike.baidu.com/tashuo/browse/content?id=b35c47633dae3f0a433cc8a4</ref>

===Sport===

Manchuria's national sports are said to be ice hockey, football, basketball, and the indigenously developed sport of {{w|:zh:珍珠球|nicuhe}}, literally meaning "Pearl-ball". Martial arts are also commonly practiced, including Buku or Manchurian wrestling,<ref name="摔跤史118" >{{harvnb|Jin|Kaihe|2006|p=118}}</ref><ref name="摔跤史142" >{{harvnb|Jin|Kaihe|2006|p=142}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Jin|Kaihe|2006|p=153}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url = http://epaper.qingdaonews.com/html/qdwb/20120306/qdwb386565.html |script-title=zh:摔跤历史挺悠久不同流派有讲究-青岛报纸电子版 |accessdate = 18 March 2015}}</ref> and archery. Manchus like Mongolians were fond of falconry.<ref name="八旗子弟106" >{{harvnb|Liu|2008|p=106}}</ref><ref name="八旗子弟107" >{{harvnb|Liu|2008|p=107}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.jl.xinhuanet.com/tese/2011-01/10/content_21821594.htm |script-title = zh:新华网吉林频道 |accessdate = 18 March 2015 |title = Archived copy |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160304040403/http://www.jl.xinhuanet.com/tese/2011-01/10/content_21821594.htm |archive-date = 4 March 2016}}</ref>Horse riding was deemed very important for Manchu culture.<ref>{{harvnb|蒋良骐|1980|p=46}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|中华书局编|1985|p=446（太宗实录）}}</ref>.The Manchu Emperor Hungli especially promoted horse riding and archery as important pillars of Manchu culture that it persists to this day.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.historychina.net/shs/356824.shtml |title=满族贵族崇尚武功国策的兴衰 |accessdate=2017-12-04 |date= |publisher=国家清史纂修工程-中华文史网 |last=李尚英 |year=2004 |deadurl=no |9= |archive-date=2021-04-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210410000915/http://www.historychina.net/shs/356824.shtml }}</ref>

Manchuria's football association was founded during the Manchukuo era.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://fukuju3.cocolog-nifty.com/footbook/2010/10/post-bfa7.html |title=満州国の国技は"蹴球"－読売新聞記事より : 蹴球本日誌 |work=fukuju3.cocolog-nifty.com |date=1 October 2010 |accessdate=10 September 2015  |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150927144028/http://fukuju3.cocolog-nifty.com/footbook/2010/10/post-bfa7.html |archivedate=27 September 2015  }}</ref> While it is a competitive team in the Asian championships, it was only able to enter the {{W|FIFA World Cup}} once in 2010, defeating Cote d'Ivoire's national football team but in turn defeated by both Portugal and Brazil.

[[File:延辺スタジアム.jpg|thumb|A stadium in Aidan.]]

Manchuria was supposed to compete in the Summer Olympics in 1932, but its only candidate, {{W|Liu Changchun|Lio Cangcon}}, defected to the {{W|Republic of China}} and became the first Chinese Olympic representative. Attempts to join the 1936 Olympics in Berlin were frustrated by the {{W|International Olympic Committee}}'s decision not to allow unrecognized states in the Olympics. Manchuria was to join the 1940 Summer Olympics but {{W|World War II}} prevented its entry<ref>{{cite book|last1=Mangan|first1=J. A.|last2=Collins|first2=Sandra|last3=Ok|first3=Gwang|title=The Triple Asian Olympics - Asia Rising: The Pursuit of National Identity, International Recognition and Global Esteem|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=O-GEDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT119|year=2018|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-1-135-71419-2|page=119}}</ref> Instead, it sent atheltes to the {{W|1940}} {{W|Far East Games}} organized by Japan. <ref name=1940j>{{cite book|last1=Collins|first1=Sandra|title=1940 TOKYO GAMES – COLLINS: Japan, the Asian Olympics and the Olympic Movement|date=2014|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1317999669|pages=179–180}}</ref> The Republic of China repeatedly denied Manchuria entry to the Olympic Games until 1972. Manchuria is more successful in Winter Games, primarily due to the country's climate; indeed it was only second to Korea in the number of Asian medalists in the Winter Olympics.Ice skating is also a popular Manchu sport and has roots in tradition;Qing emperors once retained an ice skating battalion of Manchu bannermen chosen from the best of his forces, and Qianlong even referred to ice skating as a "national custom".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.xinhuanet.com/edu/2012-08/08/c_123551557.htm|title=Xinhua: How Did Chinese Emperors Award Athletes? (simplified Chinese)|agency=Xinhua News Agency}}</ref><ref name="中新网冰嬉" >{{cite web |url = http://www.chinanews.com/cul/news/2010/01-20/2083099.shtml |script-title = zh:"冰嬉"被乾隆定为"国俗" 清军有八旗冰鞋营(5)——中新网 |author = Chinanews.com |accessdate = 18 March 2015}}</ref>{{W|Shen Xue|Shen Zo}} and {{W|Zhao Hongbo|Jogia Hongbo}} were winners of ice-skating pairs in the 2010 Winter Olympics, winning the gold and ended the streak of Russian dominance in pair skating.<ref>{{cite web | title = Winter Olympics - China's Shen, Zhao strike gold| publisher = {{W|Eurosport}} | date = 16 February 2010 | url = http://uk.eurosport.yahoo.com/16022010/58/winter-olympics-china-shen-zhao-strike-gold.html}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title = Shen, Zhao end Russian Olympic pairs dominance| publisher = Icenetwork.com | date = 16 February 2010 | url = http://web.icenetwork.com/news/article.jsp?ymd=20100216&content_id=8079088&vkey=ice_news}}</ref>{{W|Tong Jian|Tongia Jian}} is another famous Manchurian figure skater, winning championships in Europe.<ref name="Manchu">{{Cite web |url=http://sports.qq.com/a/20100401/000183.htm |title=中国花滑名将-佟健个人资料， &#91;&#91;腾讯&#93;&#93;体育  |accessdate=2013-03-22 |archive-date=2020-10-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201020152538/https://sports.qq.com/a/20100401/000183.htm }}</ref>

Traditional children's sports are alive with children in Manchuria.{{W|Shagai|Gachuha}} is a popular sport using the ankle bone of a horse or a pig.<ref name="金启孮9">{{harvnb|金启孮|2009|p=9}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|刘小萌|2008|p=106}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|刘小萌|2008|p=105-106}}</ref> 

Motor racing sports are also popular; a group of Manchurian businessmen are negotiating with Formula One to bring the race to Manchuria by 2022; however due to the COVID-19 pandemic, this idea was scrapped.

=== Media ===
Manchuria's press is rated as "Partially Free" by the Reporters Without Borders. While media is more free than in neighboring China and Russia, intimidation and censorship by government are still criticized.

The government maintains the Manchurian Broadcasting Network.

=== References ===

===Citations===
{{reflist}}

==Bibliography==

{{refbegin}}
*{{cite web|url=http://cdn.loc.gov/master/frd/frdcstdy/no/northkoreacountr00word/northkoreacountr00word.pdf |title=Manchuria – A Country Study|year=2009|publisher= {{W|Library of Congress Country Studies}}|ref={{SfnRef|Country Study|2009}}}}
*{{cite book|title=White Terror: Cossack Warlords of the Trans-Siberian  |first= Jamie |last=Bisher|volume=|edition=|year=2006|publisher=Routledge|url=https://books.google.com/?id=28iPAgAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false|isbn=1135765960|accessdate=24 April 2014| ref=harv }}
*{{cite book|title=The Making of a Chinese City: History and Historiography in Harbin|first=Søren|last=Clausen|others=Contributor: Stig Thøgersen|volume=|edition=illustrated|year=1995|publisher=M.E. Sharpe|url=https://books.google.com/?id=RpIvpEjlEJQC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false|isbn=1563244764|accessdate=10 March 2014| ref = {{harvid||}} }}
*{{cite book|title=A Translucent Mirror: History and Identity in Qing Imperial Ideology|first=Pamela Kyle|last=Crossley|volume=|edition=|year=1999|publisher=University of California Press|url=https://books.google.com/?id=Wn4iv_RJv8oC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false|isbn=0520928849|accessdate=10 March 2014| ref = {{harvid||}} }}
*{{cite book|title=Chinas religionen ...|first=Rudolf|last=Dvořák|volume=Volume 12; Volume 15 of Darstellungen aus dem Gebiete der nichtchristlichen Religionsgeschichte|edition=illustrated|year=1895|publisher=Aschendorff (Druck und Verlag der Aschendorffschen Buchhandlung)|url=https://books.google.com/?id=TmhtAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false|isbn=0199792054|accessdate=10 March 2014| ref = {{harvid||}} }}
*{{cite journal|jstor=2658945  |archiveurl=https://archive.is/20161217200852/http://scholar.harvard.edu/files/elliott/files/elliott_jas_limits_of_tartary_0.pdf |archivedate=17 December 2016 |url=http://scholar.harvard.edu/files/elliott/files/elliott_jas_limits_of_tartary_0.pdf |accessdate=17 December 2016 |doi=10.2307/2658945 |journal=The Journal of Asian Studies |title=The Limits of Tartary: Manchuria in Imperial and National Geographies |last=Elliott |first=Mark C. |volume=59 |number=3 |date=August 2000 |pages=603–646 |publisher=Association for Asian Studies }}
*Elliott, Mark C. "The Limits of Tartary: Manchuria in Imperial and National Geographies." ''Journal of Asian Studies'' 59, no. 3 (2000): 603–46.
*{{cite book|title=  A History of the Peoples of Siberia: Russia's North Asian Colony 1581–1990 |first= James|last=Forsyth|volume=|edition=illustrated, reprint, revised|year=1994|publisher=Cambridge University Press|url=https://books.google.com/?id=nzhq85nPrdsC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false|isbn=0521477719|accessdate=24 April 2014| ref=harv }}
*{{cite thesis |last= Garcia |first= Chad D. |date= 2012 |title= Horsemen from the Edge of Empire: The Rise of the Jurchen Coalition |url= https://dlib.lib.washington.edu/researchworks/bitstream/handle/1773/20679/Garcia_washington_0250E_10365.pdf?sequence=1 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20140911002021/https://dlib.lib.washington.edu/researchworks/bitstream/handle/1773/20679/Garcia_washington_0250E_10365.pdf?sequence=1 |archive-date= 2014-09-11 |publisher= University of Washington |pages= 1–315 |type= A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy |accessdate= 6 September 2014 }}
*{{cite book|title=China and the Manchus|first=Herbert A.|last=Giles|volume=|year=1912|publisher=(Cambridge: at the University Press) (New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons)|url=https://books.google.com/?id=yCqMneCHMJ4C&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false|accessdate=31 January 2014| ref = harv }}
* Hata, Ikuhiro. "Continental Expansion: 1905–1941". In ''The Cambridge History of Japan''. Vol. 6. Cambridge University Press. 1988.
*{{cite book|title=Handwörterbuch der Mandschusprache|first=Erich|last=Hauer|editor-first=Oliver|editor-last=Corff|volume=Volume 12; Volume 15 of Darstellungen aus dem Gebiete der nichtchristlichen Religionsgeschichte|edition=illustrated|year=2007|publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag|url=https://books.google.com/?id=NESwGW_5uLoC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false|isbn=978-3447055284|accessdate=10 March 2014| ref = {{harvid||}} }}
*Jones, Francis Clifford, ''Manchuria Since 1931'', London, Royal Institute of International Affairs, 1949
*{{cite journal |last= KANG |first= HYEOKHWEON |editor-last= Shiau |editor-first= Jeffrey |title= Big Heads and Buddhist Demons:The Korean Military Revolution and Northern Expeditions of 1654 and 1658 |url= http://history.emory.edu/home/assets/documents/endeavors/volume4/Kang.pdf |archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20140115010819/http://history.emory.edu/home/assets/documents/endeavors/volume4/Kang.pdf |archivedate= 15 January 2014 |journal= Emory Endeavors in World History |volume= 4: Transnational Encounters in Asia |edition= 2013 |pages= 1–22 |accessdate= 10 March 2014}}
*{{cite journal|last=Kim 金|first=Loretta E. 由美|date=2012–2013|title=Saints for Shamans? Culture, Religion and Borderland Politics in Amuria from the Seventeenth to Nineteenth Centuries|journal=Central Asiatic Journal|publisher=Harrassowitz Verlag|volume= 56|pages=169–202|jstor=10.13173/centasiaj.56.2013.0169}}
* Kwong, Chi Man. ''War and Geopolitics in Interwar Manchuria'' (2017).
*{{cite journal|doi=10.2307/535718|jstor=535718|title=Wulakai Tales from Manchuria|last=Lattimore|first=Owen|date=Jul–Sep 1933|volume= 46|number=181|journal=The Journal of American Folklore|pages=272–286|publisher=American Folklore Society}}
*{{cite book|title=Chang Tso-lin in Northeast China, 1911–1928: China, Japan, and the Manchurian Idea|first=Gavan|last=McCormack|volume=|edition=illustrated|year=1977|publisher=Stanford University Press|url=https://books.google.com/?id=GoSrAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false|isbn=0804709459|accessdate=10 March 2014| ref = {{harvid||}} }}
* Masafumi, Asada. "The China-Russia-Japan Military Balance in Manchuria, 1906–1918." ''Modern Asian Studies'' 44.6 (2010): 1283–1311.
* Nish, Ian. ''The History of Manchuria, 1840-1948: A Sino-Russo-Japanese Triangle'' (2016)
*{{cite book|title=American Diplomacy Concerning Manchuria|first=Chao-ying|last=Pʻan|volume=|edition=|year=1938|publisher=The Catholic University of America|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AC6tAAAAMAAJ|isbn=|accessdate=10 March 2014| ref = {{harvid||}} }}
*{{cite book|title=Tumen Jalafun Jecen Akū Manchu Studies in Honour of Giovanni Stary|editor1-first=Alessandra|editor1-last=Pozzi |editor2-first=Juha Antero |editor2-last=Janhunen|editor3-first=Michael|editor3-last=Weiers|others=Contributor: Giovanni Stary |volume=Volume 20 of Tunguso Sibirica|year=2006|publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag|isbn=344705378X|url=https://books.google.com/?id=LbmP_1KIQ_8C&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false|accessdate=1 April 2013| ref = {{harvid|Pozzi|2006}} }}
* {{cite journal|jstor=3985584|title=Land Use and Society in Manchuria and Inner Mongolia during the Qing Dynasty|last=Reardon-Anderson|first=James|date=October 2000|volume= 5|number=4|journal=Environmental History|pages=503–530|publisher=Forest History Society and American Society for Environmental History|doi=10.2307/3985584}}
*{{cite book|title=Manchus and Han: Ethnic Relations and Political Power in Late Qing and Early Republican China, 1861–1928|first=Edward J. M.|last=Rhoads|volume=|edition=|year=2011|publisher=University of Washington Press|url=https://books.google.com/?id=tgq1miGno-4C&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false|isbn=978-0295804125|accessdate=10 March 2014| ref = {{harvid||}} }}
*{{cite journal |last= Scharping |first= Thomas |date= 1998 |title= Minorities, Majorities and National Expansion: The History and Politics of Population Development in Manchuria 1610–1993 |url= http://www.phil-fak.uni-koeln.de/fileadmin/chinastudien/papers/No_1998-1.pdf |journal=Cologne China Studies Online – Working Papers on Chinese Politics, Economy and Society (Kölner China-Studien Online – Arbeitspapiere zu Politik, Wirtschaft und Gesellschaft Chinas) |publisher=Modern China Studies, Chair for Politics, Economy and Society of Modern China, at the University of Cologne |volume= |issue=  1 |pages= |doi= |accessdate=14 August 2014}}
* Tamanoi, Mariko Asano. ''Crossed Histories: Manchuria in the Age of Empire'' (2005)
*{{cite book|title=Japan at the Millennium: Joining Past and Future|first=Bill|last=Sewell|editor-first=David W.|editor-last=Edgington|volume=|edition=illustrated|year=2003|publisher=UBC Press|url=https://books.google.com/?id=El9Lj_EKzBAC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false|isbn=0774808993|accessdate=10 March 2014| ref = {{harvid||}} }}
*{{cite book|title=Intoxicating Manchuria: Alcohol, Opium, and Culture in China's Northeast|series=Contemporary Chinese Studies Series|first=Norman|last=Smith|volume=|edition=illustrated|year=2012|publisher=UBC Press|url=https://books.google.com/?id=2pjbx91hb_gC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false|isbn=978-0774824316|accessdate=10 March 2014| ref = {{harvid||}} }}
*{{cite book|title=  The Russian Far East: A History |first= John J. |last=Stephan|volume=|edition=illustrated, reprint|year=1996|publisher=Stanford University Press|url=https://books.google.com/?id=Jce4rBWjG5wC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false|isbn=0804727015|accessdate=24 April 2014| ref=harv }}
*{{cite journal|jstor=2658656|doi=10.2307/2658656|journal=The Journal of Asian Studies|title=Knowledge, Power, and Racial Classification: The "Japanese" in "Manchuria"|last=Tamanoi|first=Mariko Asano|volume= 59|number=2|date=May 2000|pages=248–276|publisher=Association for Asian Studies}}
*Tao, Jing-shen, ''The Jurchen in Twelfth-Century China''. University of Washington Press, 1976, {{ISBN|0-295-95514-7}}.
*KISHI Toshihiko, MATSUSHIGE Mitsuhiro and MATSUMURA Fuminori eds, 20 Seiki Manshu Rekishi Jiten [Encyclopedia of 20th Century Manchuria History], Tokyo: Yoshikawa Kobunkan, 2012, {{ISBN|978-4642014694}} 
*{{cite book|title=Die Eroberung von Qinghai unter Berücksichtigung von Tibet und Khams 1717 – 1727: anhand der Throneingaben des Grossfeldherrn Nian Gengyao|first=Shuhui|last=Wu|volume=Volume 2 of Tunguso Sibirica|edition=reprint|year=1995|publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag|url=https://books.google.com/?id=zqVug_wN4hEC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false|isbn=3447037563|accessdate=10 March 2014| ref = {{harvid||}} }}
*{{cite book|title=The Russo-Japanese War in Global Perspective: World War Zero, Volume 2|editor1-first=David|editor1-last=Wolff|editor2-first=John W.|editor2-last=Steinberg|volume=Volume 2 of The Russo-Japanese War in Global Perspective|year=2007|edition=illustrated|publisher=BRILL|isbn=978-9004154162|url=https://books.google.com/?id=xlg0lM8f9Y4C&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false|accessdate=1 April 2013| ref = {{harvid|Otto Harrassowitz Verlag|2006}} }}
*{{cite journal | jstor = 20062627 | doi = 10.1177/0097700405282349 |url= http://mcx.sagepub.com/content/32/1/3.abstract |archivedate = 25 March 2014 |archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20140325231543/https://webspace.utexas.edu/hl4958/perspectives/Zhao%20-%20reinventing%20china.pdf |title= Reinventing China Imperial Qing Ideology and the Rise of Modern Chinese National Identity in the Early Twentieth Century| journal = Modern China |last1= Zhao|first1=Gang |volume= 32 | pages = 3–30 |number=   1 |date= January 2006|publisher= Sage Publications|accessdate=}}
{{refend}}

==External Links==

* https://manchuria.gov.mj Government website (English)
* https://manchuria.net General information and tourism site (English)
* [https://www.britannica.com/place/Manchuria Manchuria] ''{{w|Encyclopædia Britannica}}'' entry
* [https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-pacific-15256929 Manchuria profile] at {{W|BBC News}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090421051351/http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/northkorea.htm Manchuria] from ''{{W|University of Colorado Boulder|UCB}} Libraries GovPubs''
* {{W|wikiatlas|Manchuria}}
* [https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/kn.html Manchuria] ''The World Factbook.'' {{W|Central Intelligence Agency}}
* [https://curlie.org/Regional/Asia/China Manchuria] at ''{{W|Curlie}}''

{{Atbox|
{{WPAN|Manchuria}}
}}

[[Category:Manchuria_(Country of the Everwhite Mountain)]][[Category:Country of the Everwhite Mountain]]