History of Astoria
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Pre-Columbian
The region that makes up modern-day Astoria (and the rest of the Pacific Northwest has been said to be one of the earliest inhabited regions in North America, with humans having resided in the Olympic Peninsula since 9,000 BCE. Other parts of Astoria have housed human life from up to 14,500-15,000 years ago. Many of these people lived around the Columbia River, especially in the Columbia River Gorge. By 8,000 BCE permanent settlements had started to crop up around the Columbia River and coastal regions. Tribes near the Columbia River were often richer than neighboring tribes thanks to their control of Celilo Falls which enabled them to control the trade of salmon, which was a prized resource in the region.
Notable tribes that resided near coastal regions Lummi, Makah, Chinook, Quinault, Snohomish, and the Quileute. Tribes that were located in the east (known as plateau tribes) included the Palus, Cayuse, Klickitat, Nez Perce, Syilx, Yakama, Wenatchi, and Spokane. Tribes in southern region included the Takelma, Umpqua, Molala, Bannock, Kalapuya, Shasta and Klamath. The Northern Shoshone, Coeur d'Alene, Ktunaxa, Umatilla, and Walla Walla resided in the south east.The Quadra's and Vancouver's Island similarly was the home to many indigenous people such as the Kwakwaka'wakw, Nuu-chah-nulth, and the Coast Salish peoples. Many of these people were the first people to come into contact with Europeans when they colonized the historic region of Oregon.
European colonization (1543–1859)
European discovery
The earliest European to sight Astoria was Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo in 1543. Juan de Fuca mapped out the Strait of Juan de Fuca in 1592. However, serious exploration of the Pacific Northwest was first seriously undertaken by Juan José Pérez Hernández on behalf of the Spanish Empire in accordance to their claims to the region in 1774. A year later Bruno de Heceta also made a expedition to the region as well as Juan Francisco de la Bodega y Quadra. Heceta was claimed land north of the Quinault River in order to counter Russian expansion into North America. Meanwhile, Quadra managed to reach the mouth of the Columbia River. The region soon became a valuable trading outlet between the Americas and East Asia.
In 1778 British Captain James Cook set out to search for the Northwest Passage, which resulted in him exploring the Oregon Coast. This prompted in the 1780s for the maritime fur trade to emerge in the region. However, British influence in the region led to tensions between Britannia and Spain, who eventually signed the Nootka Convention which opened up the region to both British and Russian influence. The newly emerged United States of America also laid claim to the region. Further Spanish explorations were undertaken by Manuel Quimper and Francisco de Eliza. However, the most successful expedition up to that date was done by George Vancouver who not only fully mapped out the Quadra's and Vancouver's Island but also reached Puget Sound, of which he claimed all land south of it for Britain.
American exploration started with Robert Gray, who found the mouth of the Columbia River. In 1804 American President Thomas Jefferson commissioned navigators Meriwether Lewis and William Clark to explore the western regions of North America, which resulted in the Lewis and Clark Expedition, where they began an extensive expedition of what would become Astoria. Notably, the travelers came across many Native American tribes, which they noticed had more gender equality than other tribes in the east. One such Native American they met was Sacagawea near Salmon, who helped guide them to the Pacific Ocean. The expedition saw the first mapping out of the Clearwater, Snake, and Columbia rivers as well as Mount Hood.
Canadian-British explorer David Thompson explored the full length of the Columbia River in 1807, where he reaffirmed Britains's claims to the region, trying to create a trading outpost for the North West Company. The American Pacific Fur Company competed with the North West Company for fur trading in the region, which saw increased British and American immigration. Early American and British settlers also took up the role of missionaries to the Native Americans. Henry H. Spalding was a preacher who helped set up the first Astorian school, and irrigation system and also introduced potatoes to the region. Cataldo Mission, constructed by Catholic missionaries became an important post for traveling traders, settlers, and miners. The settlement of Fort Astoria began in 1811 by the Pacific Fur Company, a venture of John Jacob Astor.
Provisional Oregon
Since 1816, both the United States and Britain claimed the region, which was known at the time as Oregon Country. Previously Russia had laid claim to the region along with Spain, however, Britain nullified these claims with treaties. Nevertheless, America continued to encourage American immigration to the region, hoping to eventually annex it into America. American immigration to the region was spurred by the establishment of the Oregon Trail, which was laid out by the mountain men of the fur trade.
Jesuits and Methodist missionaries organized the Champoeg Meetings, a series of assemblies that sought to bring the European-American and French Canadian pioneers to an agreement over the establishment of a provisional government. Methodist minister Jason Lee chaired the first meeting in 1841. François Norbert Blanchet, a Catholic prelate in attendance, disagreed with Lee over the the creation over the creation of the offices of governor and attorney general. Blanchet proposed the sole creation of a Supreme Judge rather than the creation of an executive and legislature. Ira L. Babcock was selected on February 18, 1841 to serve as the Supreme Judge of the Provisional Government of Oregon.
In 1843 white settlers of the Willamette Valley convened at a series of Wolf Meetings at the Oregon Institute in Salem, Oregon to discuss how to deal with the wolves that threatened the pioneer's livestock. At the first meeting the, a committee comprised of twelve men, who reported that only a strong government could address the wolf issue. In a 52-50 vote, the assembly of pioneers declared the establishment of an Executive Committee, replacing the Supreme Judge and establishing a directorial executive on July 5, 1843. David Hill, Alanson Beers and Joseph Gale were elected by the assembly to serve on the first Executive Committee. The Provisional Government passed the Organic Laws of Oregon on July 5, 1843, creating the legal framework for a judiciary, executive, legislative committee, and the division of territory into the following five districts: Tualatin, Yamhill, Clackamas and Champoeg. After an altercation known as the Cockstock incident between James D. Saules, a free black settler and Cockstock, a native, the Provisional Government of Oregon voted in 1844 to exclude black settlers from Oregon's borders. The law also reaffirmed the region's ban on all forms of slavery. Four black settlers were documented to have either been relocated within or expelled from the territory by legal means.
Employment in lumber extraction and processing attracted settlers to Astoria throughout the 1840s and 1850s. In 1851 the city of Seattle was established by the Denny Party of Indiana. Seattle's earliest leader, David Swinson Maynard, was an advocate for indigenous rights and established positive relations with Chief Seattle. Maynard advocated for the city be named in his honor. The Fraser Gold Rush encouraged additional immigration to the region, which spurred the development of Port Townsend and Whatcom (now Bellingham).
Revolutionary period (1859–1867)
Second Civil War in Oregon
In 1859 the United States Congress delayed the admission of Oregon to the 36th United States Congress, who also delayed the subject due to ongoing unrest in the region with Canada. With the secession of Confederate States of America, members of Lincoln's cabinet and Republicans in Congress were reluctant to admit Oregon on the grounds that the region was settled primarily by pioneers sympathetic to the Democratic Party. Lincoln provided assurances in March of 1865 to the delegates of the 1859 Oregon Constitutional Convention that Oregon would be admitted along with the territories of Washington and Idaho after the conclusion of the Civil War. Lincoln and his cabinet were assassinated on April 14th, reviving the Confederate cause, beginning of the Second American Civil War and ending the prospect of Oregon's admission to the union.
The Oregon Territorial Legislature, led by Democratic Speaker Benjamin F. Harding, declared on December 24, 1865 a constitutional convention to be held to decide if Oregon would remain a part of the the United States or establish the framework for an independent republic. Oregon territorial governor, Republican Addison Gibbs, declared the actions of the territorial legislature illegal and vetoed the bill. The legislature overturned the governor's veto. After the judiciary sided with the legislature, Gibbs declared the actions of the legislature treasonous and deployed the territorial militia. The legislature raised its own forces, starting the Oregon Civil War. The situation was further complicated when Wilbur Anderson and Trevor Williams and a minority of the legislature in Oregon City declared the Free State of Oregon on January 8 1866.
Oregon Civil War
Loyalists forces to the United States fled to Walla Walla, leaving Salem to the territorial legislature. Canadian loyalists in Fort Vancouver, Vancouver, and Victoria declared the Pacific Provinces of Columbia backed by Canada. The Battle of Salem was the first major skirmish of the civil war, forcing the territorial legislature to move to Fort Astoria. The Free State, Territorial Legislature and Territorial Governor all claimed to be legal successor of Oregon. By February of 1866, the newspapers of Oregon began to use distinguishing terminology to separate the three governments. The Oregon City government was referred as the Willamette Parliamentarians, the territorial legislature in Fort Astoria as the Astorian Democrats and the United States backed territorial governor as the Walla Walla Republicans. The partisan nature of the conflict was similar to ongoing Second Civil War in the eastern United States and the wider War of Contingency, with supporters of the Democratic Party aiding secessionist causes and supporters of the Republican Party fighting to preserve the United States.
Support for the Astorian territorial legislature was strongest along the Oregon Coast, the heavily populated west bank of the Williamite and the east bank south of Albany. In northern Oregon territory, the settlements of Seattle, the Olympic Peninsula and pockets along the Chehalis Valley were other areas of strong supporters for the Democratic legislature in Astoria. Supporters of the Parliamentarians were concentrated in the northern east bank of the Williamite surrounding the settlements of Portland and Gresham. The Walla Walla Republicans maintained support among Americans in the interior, specifically the white settlers in the Palouse.
Establishment of the Constitutional Assembly
On May 1, 1866 members of the territorial legislature unanimously sign the Declaration of Independence. The declaration explained to the nations of North America why the settlers of the Oregon Territory regarded themselves belonging to an independent state no longer subject to the administration of Canada nor the United States. The Constitutional Assembly of the Republic convened on May 5, commissioning Nathaniel Cannon as commander of the Astorian Revolutionary Army. Cannon is also appointed to the Provisional Executive Committee, alongside Emmett Leblanc, Vernon Brennan, Clarence Booth, Milton Ford and Willard Pratt. Astoria's first political party was established on May 19, the Frontier Party, in an effort bridge the partisan divide between Democratic and Republican settlers.
Members of the Constitutional Assembly appointed Cornelius O'Neil as the first Astorian ambassador to Sierra on May 8. Because the Republic of Astoria was not recognized by Sierra as an independent nation at the time, O'Neil was received by the court of Charles I as a minister. O'Neil delivered the Statement for Pacific Cooperation to the Sierran Parliament and Prime Minister Richard Trist on May 17, 1866. The statement outlined the Constitutional Assembly's three prime goals for a sovereign Astoria. First, to maintain a neutral state without interest in territorial expansion or international politics. Secondly, prevent the establishment of a Canadian or American state that spans the continent. Lastly, the peaceful coexistence of the Western Seaboard nations. O'Neil and the statement were successful in winning the support of Trist and Parliament. Support was initially limited to the delivery of military equipment.
Cannon's offensive
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On July 3, Cannon's Army retook Salem from the Parliamentarians. Cannon and Pratt's forces converged on Portland on July 8, the Free State of Oregon surrendered formally in Oregon City on July 11. Wilbur Anderson, former commander of the Parliamentarian Army, was awarded a commission by the Provisional Executive Committee on July 18. Upon his commission, Anderson was dispatched to the Palouse to take the interior forts from the American backed government in Walla Walla. Emmett Leblan, commander of the Puget Regiment, launched a disastrous assault on the the Pacific State's Fort Nisqually resulting in the deaths of 87 Astorian soldiers. Recalled to Astoria on August 18 by the Constitutional Assembly, Leblan was removed from the Provisional Executive Committee by the Constitutional Assembly. Cannon questioned the actions of the Assembly openly, as the recall of Leblan left the communities surrounding Seattle vulnerable to the armies of the Pacific States.
Members of Executive Committee and the Constitutional Assembly agreed that Fort Vancouver, the southernmost stronghold of the Pacific States and the Canadian Hudson's Bay Company, was to be taken by the end of the year. Cannon, reluctant to cross the Columbia River on makeshift vessels, confiscated two steam powered vessels from the Oregon Steam Navigation Company and the People's Transportation Company. On August 30, Cannon transported roughly a quarter of the total Revolutionary Army (800 men) and four canons and 60 horses across the Columbia River for the assault. The ensuring Battle of Fort Vancouver culminated in a decisive victory for the Astorian offensive. By October, the Pacific States had ceased all activities south of the 49th parallel.
Canadian intervention in Oregon
Routes between the United Commonwealth and the Walla Walla government were effectively cutoff by the establishment of Superior by the coalition forces of Britain and Sierra. Astoria's control of the Columbia River, rendered the American forces without any supplies. Because of ongoing conflicts with the indigenous peoples of the Palouse, the state of the American forces was unfit to maintain order in the small settlements the Walla Walla government had claimed. Fluctuating food supplies, low morale, and continuous harassment by the indigenous peoples of the Palouse caused massed desertions in the Walla Walla garrisons. Brigadier General Vernon Brennan led an army through the Columbia River Gorge to establish Astorian control in the interior. Addison Gibbs surrendered to Brennan without bloodshed on September 20, ending the Walla Walla government and the United States' presence in Oregon territory.
As early as January 30, 1866, Canadian forces had already entered into northern Oregon Country to bolster the defenses of Vancouver Island and the mouth of Fraser River. Although Canada claimed the entire Columbia District, the policy of the Canadian government prohibited any military maneuvers south of the 49th parallel. Upon Canadian government's discovery of the fall of the Walla Walla government, an immediate offensive was launched. On November 19th Canadian troops were discovered by Astorian scouts crossing the Nooksack River, beginning the Eugene War. The first confrontation between Canadian and Astoria forces occurred at Bellingham Bay at the First Battle of Fairhaven, where Canadian and Pacific States under the command of George Francis Wainwright claimed their first victory. Efforts to retake the small settlement by Clarence Booth at the Second Battle of Fairhaven resulted in the death of Booth and a costly defeat for Astorian forces.
Sierran intervention in Oregon
Astorian forces, at the command of Cannon, were ordered after the Battle of Fairhaven to retreat en mass from the northern territories to the Willamette Valley. On December 28, Ambassador to Sierra Cornelius O'Neil requested Richard Trist to enter the war. Trist refused to support Sierra's entry into the war unless the Constitutional Assembly agreed to join the Kingdom. O'Neil refused the offer, resulting in Trist ordering the next shipment of rifles to Fort Astoria to be held at port in San Francisco. The action backfired within Parliament and among the general public in northern Sierra. Prime Minister Trist announced his support for entering the war on January 11, under pressure from his own party and the Democratic-Republican Party. On the eve of Sierra's entry into the war Canadian and Pacific States troops took Fort Astoria at the First Battle of Fort Astoria. The Constitutional Assembly and the Provisional Executive Committee were evacuated to Portland, where they chose to relocate the capitol to Eugene.
Canadian forces retook Fort Vancouver with minimal casualties on January 16, which secured the Pacific State's control over the Puget Sound, the northern coasts of Oregon and the growing settlements between Vancouver and Seattle. Canadian advances into the interior were expeditious, assisted by the downstream navigation of the Columbia River. On January 18, Canadian troops burned the settlement of Seattle in response to the murder of ten Canadian soldiers on patrol. Violent unrest erupted throughout Puget Sound in response to the burning, which was met with retaliations from military peacekeepers.
The first major naval battle and most significant of the war occurred at the Battle of Juan de Fuca Strait on January 27, where the Sierran Royal Navy captured the majority of the Canadian Pacific Fleet in route for the defense of Fort Astoria. The battle resulted in Sierra's total maritime domination of the Salish Sea. Several landings by the Sierran Royal Marines were successfully made, resulting in the capture of numerous settlements in the Puget Sound, most importantly Fairhaven. With the assistance of local partisans under the command of Dirty Dan Harris, Sierran Marines were successful in ending the Canadian occupation of Bellingham Bay at the Third Battle of Fairhaven on February 11. Bellingham Bay's liberation created a safe haven for displaced settlers in the Puget Sound and secured a port for Sierran warships in the Puget Sound. Sierra's naval victories in the region marked a significant turning point in the war.
Conclusion of the war
Wainwright crossed the Columbia on March 4, landing near Sandy River, raiding the communities surrounding Portland without taking the city itself. The Canadian and Pacific States armies abandoned Fort Vancouver and continued down the Willamette Valley throughout March without any serious opposition, sacking the peripheries of Salem and destroying the settlement of Albany. Wainwright sought to end the war quickly by capturing the Constitutional Assembly in Eugene, but was unaware of the ongoing situation in the Puget Sound.
On March 8, the Sierran Royal Marines with Astorian militia landed on Vancouver Island at the empty Esquimalt Harbour and captured the city of Victoria on March 11 in the Battle of Victoria. Minister of the Pacific States William Trevor and the majority of the Parliament of the Pacific States was captured in the unexpected assault. On Wainwright's Army assaulted the city of Eugene on April 3, which was under the defense of Astorian General Milton Ford. Canadian forces successfully took the city and captured roughly a third of the Constitutional Assembly. On April 5, the Sierran Army received a telegraph from Wainwright declaring the Astorian government disbanded. Sierran Prime Minister Ulysses Perry and ambassador Cornelius O'Neil replied to Wainwright, offering a his conditional surrender if a response was provided by the Canadian government within a week. Canadian Prime Minister Alexander Sinclair refused Sierra's terms.
Astorian revolutionaries and the Sierran Navy successfully sieged the Canadian held Fort Astoria on April 11, lasting roughly a week. Astorian forces supported by the Sierran Marines crossed the 49th parallel on April 18, resulting in a decisive Astorian victory at the Battle of Nicomekl River. Astoria captured Vancouver on April 24, ending any remaining support for the Pacific States. Canadian Prime Minister Sinclair received by telegraph the formal surrender of the Pacific States, whereupon Sinclair brought to the Canadian Parliament a series of plans to conclude the war on conditional terms with Sierra. These terms were sent by telegraph on April 30. Sierra rejected the terms, claiming the Canadian government had failed to meet its deadline and that it would only accept an unconditional surrender. Sinclair refused.
On May 4, Astorian forces under the command of Cannon approached Eugene from the north and Sierran forces under the command of John C. Frémont approached the city from the south. The Battle of Eugene resulted in a devastating defeat for Canadian forces. Wainwright surrendered and alerted Sinclair via telegraph that the Canadian forces in the western frontier had capitulated. Ottawa ordered its troops throughout the Oregon territory to retreat to Alberta. Sierra, Astoria, Canada and the Pacific States negotiated the Saint Anthony Treaty on July 25, 1867, ending all hostilities. The Pacific States was dissolved and its territory was recognized as integral to the Republic of Astoria. Both Sierra and Canada guaranteed Astoria's independence on condition that it remain neutral in North American affairs.
Early republic (1867–1911)
Which officially ended the War of Contingency in 1868. Astoria flourished with the proliferation of railroads in the aftermath of the war that connected it with the Sierra, Superior, the newly-acquired Sierran territory of Deseret and Brazoria. Kier Astor's interest in politics and dreams for an independent state in the Pacific Northwest dwindled, instead focusing on his family's business ventures. Much of the railroads built in Astoria and connected the nation to foreign nations, were constructed by the North Pacific Railroad, a company owned by the Astors. In 1870 a second general election was held and the Frontier Party maintained its majority.
In 1873 a Mormon militia led a massacre against the Chinese railroad worker camp of the North Pacific Railroad Company in Glenns Ferry, causing tensions to flare between Astoria and Sierra. Astoria joined the Canaanite–Mormon War as a fourth belligerent in 1875, against both the Canaanites and Mormons in a defensive capacity. Astor made a pact with the indigenous peoples of the Snake River Valley, the Snake Indians, to fight against Mormon and Canaanite incursions into Astoria. Anti-Mormon sentiments stemmed from settler hysteria from 1857 Mountain Meadows Massacre, with many Astorian settlers sympathizing with the Baker–Fancher party. The Astorian Parliament passed laws that made Mormon settlement illegal and in 1876 passed the Mormon Extermination Act. Local militias were ordered to target Mormon settlers throughout Astoria's interior, which historians consider a genocide.
Concurrent with Astoria's war with Mormon and Canaanite settlers, Astoria informally entered the Sierran Civil War in support of Charles I. Kier Astor and his Frontier Party feared Isaiah Landon and his ideology. Because of Canada and the United Kingdom's support for the Second California Republic, Astoria officially remained neutral throughout the war. Edward Stanley, a British foreign minister, discovered Astor's support for the monarchists and worked to have him dismissed as Premier of Astoria in 1877. Astor's dismissal caused internal unrest against British authorities. Benjamin Disraeli intervened, threatening Astor with the confiscation of his financial holdings in Canada, Britain and Astoria. Astor quelled dissent among his supporters, after which he returned to private life. Three years after his dismissal, Kier Astor contributed significantly to the campaign of Spencer Cavendish during the 1880 general election held in Britain.
Astor's patronage of British officials allowed for significant amounts of resources to be diverted to Astoria. Astoria became the largest exporter of timber to Britain, and the economic prosperity of the protectorate improved significantly. Astoria became the British Empire's base for its operations in the North Pacific. In the 1890s during the Klondike Gold Rush, Seattle became a boom town and Astoria's northern territories saw a dramatic increase in population. Major financial institutions were created in the aftermath of the gold rush, the largest being the Astor-owned Astorian National Bank. With an influx of new citizens, the Frontier Party saw a decrease in its popularity, and during the general election the party lost its majority to the Confederation Party. Kier Astor's heir, Gerhardt Astor began to court supporters, most of whom members of the United Grand Lodge of Astoria, to overthrow premier Philbert Nelson.
Modern Astoria and the Great War (1911–1938)
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After years of planning, Gerhardt Astor led a coup against Philbert Nelson in 1901. Gerhardt reinstated the Frontier Party as the ruling party and returned to power as prime minister. The event caused a political upheaval within Canadian politics, forcing Canadian Prime Minister Robert Gascoyne-Cecil out of office. Members of the Confederation Party attempted to overthrow Gerhardt Astor, causing the outbreak of the Columbian Revolution in Victoria, Vancouver, Yukon, and Montagne. The Astorian government appealed to both Sierra and the United Commonwealth for protection from a Canadian invasion as it dealt with its northern insurgency. Canada and Astoria signed the Boise Accords in 1902, maintaining Astoria's status as a dominion and allowing Canadian and British access to the Pacific Ocean from Vancouver. The regions of Victoria and Vancouver were reincorporated into the commonwealth by the end of 1903, and Montagne and Yukon by early 1904. In 1905 Astoria became the largest producer of timber in North America. Shipbuilding spurred throughout the nation, with significant concentrations in Seattle and Vancouver. Salmon canning and mining became some of the largest industries in Astoria. Large foundries were constructed Tacoma, where gold, silver, copper and lead ores were treated and smelted.
Gerhardt Astor faced opposition in 1907 as labor unrest engulfed the nation, a similar situation that many nations in North America were facing. British supporters took advantage of the situation, initiating their own organized protests across the country. Unrest increased during the summer, and several facilities in Vancouver and Seattle were seized by both pro-British protestors and trade unionists. Astor launched a military operation, popularly known as the Carousel Massacres, which resulted in the deaths of several hundred across Astoria. Accounts of the massacres show that many citizens were subjected to brutal terror, which shocked citizens across the nation. Gerhardt Astor ordered that military squads be accompanied by his personal collection of fairground organs, which he believed would soothe agitators and disgruntled citizens. Military records show that these instruments were played during executions, leading to Astor's regime being referred to as the 'Carousel Regime'. These actions brought international condemnation, turning Astoria into a pariah state.
Astor and the legislative assembly announced an investigation of the military high command and formally announced to the international community that trials would commence. Astor and his government came under the scrutiny of Sierra's Prime Minister, Robert Landon, who threatened to intervene in the country if drastic measures weren't taken to prosecute those engaged in state terror. On September 9, 1908, several trials were held to convict military officials and soldiers who participated in the massacres. Public opinion of Gerhardt Astor improved as he and his cabinet were acquitted of any wrongdoings. In an agreement with Landon, all left-wing parties in Astoria were legalized in 1908. Sierra's influence over Astoria increased significantly as Astor sought to improve the nation's position in the world. On March 18, 1909, Astoria issued a unilateral declaration of independence to the United Kingdom, formally ending its status as a dominion within the British Empire.
Parliament drafted the 1909 Constitution of Astoria, establishing Astoria as a federal presidential republic. The Constitution took a great deal of inspiration from the United States Constitution. Relations between Astoria and Canada deteriorated significantly when the Boise Accords was declared null by the provisional National Congress. Elections were held in September, with the National Democratic Party winning an outright majority against the Labor Party. Gerhardt Astor was elected as an independent, serving two terms. All twelve states were admitted to the republic simultaneously, and Astor City was declared the capital. Significant public works projects were initiated to build the necessary amenities for the government to operate in Astor City. Astor served from 1910 to 1918, promoting economic reforms that benefitted his own personal ventures. Astor promoted a policy of increased immigration to lower labor costs, passing the 1917 Astorian Immigration Act. In 1918 the Ernest Anderson of the National Democratic Party was elected as the second president of the republic. Throughout Anderson's administration, he and his cabinet operated at the direction of the aging Gerhardt Astor and maintained much of his predecessor's legacies.
Anti-Landonist sentiments were revived in 1918 during the Continental Revolutionary War which had gripped the United Commonwealth. Politicians used Sierran-born Zhou Xinyue's activism and participation in the war to stoke fear, and a wave of anti-Chinese sentiments ensured. Anderson and the Astorian government often sought to promote white immigration from Sierra, but with growing Landonist sentiments in Styxie these efforts ceased in 1919. As Sierra promoted the ideology of a New Culture, Astoria affirmed its racist ideology through the Astorian Proclamation. While immigration was prohibited to Landonist supporters, throughout the 1920s white Sierrans continued to migrate to Astoria in response to Sierran Cultural Revolution becoming more pronounced. White immigration from Sierra supplied the Labor Party with a significant base, leading to their victory during the 1926 election. Abraham Davis was elected the 3rd President of Astoria, beginning roughly three decades of Labor supremacy in Astorian federal government.
Astoria experienced significant growth leading up to the Great Depression, with industrial production and timber sales growing annually. In 1930 Abraham Davis and the Labor government passed legislation to increase tariffs. In 1931 the government attempted to overturn the tariffs, but with most of North America taking on protectionist policies Astoria's attempt to reverse its tariff position ultimately failed. During the 1930 election the Labor Party secured a majority within government, albeit with a smaller percentage in the Senate. Wayne O'Connor pushed for the construction of several major dams on the Columbia River, a part of the Labor Party's work relief program. Bonneville Dam was the first major project, and was the first public project in Astorian history to exclusively utilize union labor. The Astorian Electrical Authority (AEA) was established on 1932 to maintain, operate and distribute the electrical grid that connected the nation to the new system of dams. This new abundance of cheap and reliable electricity spurred industry and unemployment declined significantly. Additionally, locks were constructed to allow increased barge access throughout the Columbia watershed. Transportation costs for all goods decreased significantly, agricultural products benefited significantly from new river access. Astorian wheat, apples and other foodstuff became competitive on the global market, with exports to Sierra and Asia increasing roughly 290%.
Post-war Astoria (1938–1991)
In April of 1932, the United Commonwealth invaded Brazoria in support of Landonist rebels in the ongoing Brazorian Revolutionary War. The Labor Party, which had benefited from Landonist-leaning Sierran immigration throughout the past two decades, was split ideologically on intervention. Conservatism in the national saw a revival and during the 1932 election the National Democrats won a majority in the House of Representatives. Astoria's proximity to Sierra and established relations with other nations of the Entente Impériale proved difficult for O'Conner to navigate. Tensions between Canada and Astoria had significantly deteriorated as Astoria's refusal to enter into the war caused concerns among Canadian politicians that Astoria's Labor Party would lead the country to join the Continentals. Although the two countries had already engaged in several small-scale skirmishes no formal declarations of war were made.
Canada in an attempt to prevent Astorian defection from the Western Bloc launched the Astor-Canadian War. After several attempts by Astorian diplomats for Sierra Prime Minister Poncio Salinas to intervene in the conflict failed, Astoria mobilized its population for a defensive war. O'Connor and Kier II Astor, the unofficial leader of the conservative bloc, made a pact to ensure that Labor's official stance would be to denounce Landonism.
The National Democratic Party in return upheld its opposition to monarchism and provided support to O'Connor in the nation's effort to repel Canadian forces. Astorian forces were successful at the Battle of Exshaw, but were unable to maintain its defensive positions outside of Fort St. John. Canadian efforts ceased after a failed attempt to take Hazell. In eastern Canada the Crimson Spring forced the Canadian government to negotiate for peace with Astoria, prompting the Treaty of Vancouver.
The United Commonwealth, making ground against Sierra, Canada, and Superior pushed Astoria to intervene, and on September 15, 1933, joined with the Entente during the Second Great War. Astoria's manpower and equipment were used during the liberation of Superior and Manitoba. Throughout the war, labor and goods shortages caused civil unrest and in 1934 a Landonist insurgency on the Olympian peninsula attempted to overthrow the government. The insurgency was quickly put down but caused significant political damage to O'Conner and the Labor Party. After roughly four years of conflict, the western bloc was successful in repelling Continental forces from the western half of North America. In 1938 Astoria joined with other nations at the Berlin Peace Conference to end hostilities. Astoria joined the League of Nations as a founding member in 1939.
Astoria's interwar period saw the development of new social services. Wayne O'Connor was elected for a third term in 1942 as the candidate of the newly merged Progressive–Labor Party. Progressive–Labor candidates swept the House and Senate and regained an absolute majority. In 1943 the Federal Health Insurance Program (FHIP) was established, a statutory health insurance system. In 1944 the Federal Pension and Employment Insurance System (FPEIS) was developed, establishing a social insurance program that provides funding for retirement and unemployment insurance. In 1945 the last program by the Progressive-Labor government was initiated; the Federal Assistance Program for the Deprived and Poor (FAPDP), providing supplemental income and food rations to communities at need. The various social security programs proved popular and the Progressive–Labor Party maintained its majority during the 1946 election. O'Connor died in office in 1949, with the then unpopular vice-president Adam Hayes taking the presidency.
The 1950 presidential election between Hayes and Kier II Astor, the son of Gerhardt Astor, was one of the most contentious in Astorian history. While Astor ran as an independent, he supported National Democratic candidates across the country in an effort to overturn much of the social programs enacted by O'Connor. Astor was elected president, but the Progressive–Labor Party maintained control in both the Senate and House of Representatives. Throughout the 1950s and 1960s, the Astorian government operated with a divided government, with limited alterations to major programs. Astor took a more aggressive foreign policy against Landonist-aligned nations and on several occasions during his presidency attempted to use executive authority to perform covert activities.
Astoria remained neutral throughout the Great War II but was a major supplier to both the United Commonwealth and Sierra. Most of Astoria's military hardware was utilized against Japan. War fervor stoked anti-Japanese sentiment, leading to the internment of Japanese Astorians. Roughly 90,000 Astorians of Japanese descent were removed from their homes. Astoria's bombers and naval equipment were crucial to the war against Japan. Astoria officially declared a policy of armed neutrality and would seek to mediate conflict among nations.
Significant changes to Astorian domestic policy began with the 1958 general election, when Nathaniel Clarke won the presidency and the National Democrats won a majority in the Senate and the House of Representatives. Financial regulations were eliminated entirely and the government privatized many of the federally-owned enterprises. Municipal and state-owned enterprises were declared illegal by the National Congress but after a lengthy judicial battle, these laws were overturned. Industrial and environmental agencies saw deregulation, which spurred both growth and instances of environmental catastrophes. Astorco became a multinational corporation during this period and was the largest employer during much of the 1960s and 1970s. Regulations on campaign contributions were eliminated, opening for more political patronage. Astorian labor unions saw a steep decline in membership and income inequality increased to levels not seen prior to 1928.
Jothnathan Barker, a National Democrat, was elected during the 1966 general election and sought to promote further integration into the North American economy. In 1966 Astoria joined the Conference of American States and the Lincoln Area after the signing of the Treaty of Seattle. The Progressive-Labor Party openly protested Astoria's entry into the Conference and believed that the free trade agreement and common market would destroy the domestic industrial base. While Astoria lost manufacturing jobs, access to oil in Alaska caused a significant decrease in transportation costs. It is still debated among economists if Astoria's admission to the Conference benefited or harmed the nation. Progressives in Astoria have advocated for the nation to leave the Conference, but no serious attempts have been made. Astoria since 1966 has been the headquarters of the supranational union, which as of 22 consists of 27 member states.
Astoria experienced a significant delay in the counterculture wave. Because of the nation's already anti-religious attitudes, conservatism in the country utilized their own alternative talking points in relation to arguments in Sierra or Brazoria. When social tensions unraveled in the 1970s, the conservative right in Astoria used Social Darwinism as an appeal to authority. Factions in both the National Democratic and Progressive-Labor Party took positions that supported discriminatory policies on the topic of immigration. Senators and Representatives of the National Democrats utilized nationalism and ethnocultural appeals to stop Asian immigration while Progressive-Labor sought to constrict the human labor supply. On matters regarding human sexuality, womens' rights and indigenous rights, the liberal factions of both parties were relatively more willing to accept. Progressive-Labor was able to capture the liberal and counterculture vote during the 1974 general election. In 1978 the National Democrats were able to deny Progressive Samuel Faulkner a second term, electing far-right candidate Franklin Morris.
Within the first one hundred days of Morris's administration, he and several conservative members of his party attempted to dismantle the nation's social welfare system. Morris denounced members within his own party who subscribed one-nation conservatism, which he and his supporters viewed as being anti-capitalist and borderline socialist. Throughout Morris's first term, he was unable to undo much of the programs but his appointments to the executive government made the system inefficient. Morris won a close reelection during the 1982 general election and was able to secure a majority within the House of Representatives. With the passage of the 1983 Competitive and Responsible Astoria Act (CRAA) all government retirement and health insurance schemes were privatized.
Contemporary Astoria (1991–present)
The national attitude towards the National Democrats soured for the next decade and a half, with two Progressive presidents winning consecutive elections; Aaron Chambers and Aaron Chambers. In both the House and Senate, Progressives gained significant majorities. The Competitive and Responsible Astoria Act repealed in 1987 and all social programs were reinstated. It wouldn't be until 2002 that another National Democrat would win the presidency. During the 2000s and 2010s, major topics which caught the publics attention in elections included; same-sex marriage, collective bargining, abortion rights, curriculum, affirmative action, terrorism, immigration and climate change.
During the COVID-19 Pandemic, Astoria was one of the least vaccinated nations on the planet. Vaccine hesitancy is a widespread belief, with roughly 41% of the nation believing that vaccines cause autism. In national and regional politics, vaccination is rarely promoted by elected officials. Because of the vaccine hesitancy, COVID-19 has remained relatively prevalent throughout Astoria. The majority of school districts in Astoria do not require vaccinations, which has resulted in several outbreaks of measles in recent decades.
Brendan Shepard, a conservative member of the National Democratic Party serves as the current President of Astoria. The National Democrats hold a majority in the Senate, while Progressives hold a majority in the House of Representatives. Seven out of the twelve governors are members of the National Democratic Party, while five are members of the Progressive–Labor Party.