Syrian Arab Republic: Difference between revisions

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#REDIRECT [[Syrian Arab Republic (1967–2004)]]
{{Short description|Country in Western Asia}}
{{about|the modern state of Syria}}
{{pp-semi-indef}}
{{pp-move-indef}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2020}}
{{Coord|35|N|38|E|display=title}}
<!-- NOTICE: please do not be tempted to make the infobox "neutral" even though there's a [[WP:NPOV]]. The consensus from the recent RfC at [[Talk:Syria#RfC: Presentation of the Syrian country infobox]] was to retain the infobox with Assad's government until there were significant changes. -->
{{Infobox country
| conventional_long_name = Syrian Arab Republic
| common_name            = Syria
| native_name            = {{native name|ar|الجمهورية العربية السورية|italics=off}}<br />{{small|{{transliteration|ar|al-Jumhūrīyah al-ʻArabīyah as-Sūrīyah}}}}
| image_flag            = Flag of Syria.svg
| image_coat            = Coat of arms of Syria.svg
| national_anthem        = {{lang|ar|حُمَاةَ الدِّيَارِ}}<br />{{transliteration|ar|Ḥumāt ad-Diyār}}<br />"[[Humat ad-Diyar|Guardians of the Homeland]]"<div style="display:inline-block;margin-top:0.4em;">{{center|[[File:National Anthem of Syria.ogg]]}}</div>
| national_motto        = {{lang|ar|وَحْدَةٌ ، حُرِّيَّةٌ ، اِشْتِرَاكِيَّةٌ}}<br />{{transliteration|ar|Waḥdah, Ḥurrīyah, Ishtirākīyah}}<br />"Unity, Freedom, Socialism"
| image_map              = {{Switcher|[[File:Syria (orthographic projection) disputed.svg|frameless]]<br /> Syria in dark green, claim to much of [[Turkey]]'s [[Hatay Province]] and Israeli-occupied [[Golan Heights]] shown in light green|Show globe|[[File:Syria - Location Map (2013) - SYR - UNOCHA.svg|upright=1.15|frameless]]|Show map of Syria|default=1}}
| capital                = [[Damascus]]
| coordinates            = {{Coord|33|30|N|36|18|E|type:city}}
| largest_city          = [[Damascus]]
| official_languages    = [[Modern Standard Arabic|Arabic]]<ref>{{cite web |title=Constitution of the Syrian Arab Republic – 2012 |url=https://www.ilo.org/dyn/natlex/docs/ELECTRONIC/91436/106031/F-931434246/constitution2.pdf |publisher=International Labour Organization |access-date=31 August 2020}}</ref>
| ethnic_groups          = 75% [[Arabs]]<br />10% [[Kurds]] <br />15% [[Ethnic groups in Syria|Others]] (including [[Syrian Turkmen|Turkomans]], [[Assyrians in Syria|Assyrians]], [[Circassians in Syria|Circassians]], [[Armenians in Syria|Armenians]] and others)<ref name="CIA - The World Factbook"/><ref>{{cite web |title=Largest Ethnic Groups In Syria |url=https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/largest-ethnic-groups-in-syria.html |website=WorldAtlas |date=7 June 2018 |access-date=18 August 2022}}</ref>
| religion              = 87% [[Islam in Syria|Islam]]<br />10% [[Christianity in Syria|Christianity]]<ref name="CIA - The World Factbook"/><br />3% [[Druze in Syria|Druze]]
| government_type        = <!-- NOTICE: Please don't change it to a single-party state, because in 2012 a new Constitution was approved, allowing more parties to participate in elections and other events. -->[[Unitary state|Unitary]] [[Semi-presidential system|semi-presidential]] [[republic]]<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.scribd.com/doc/81771718/Qordoba-Translation-of-the-Syrian-Constitution-Modifications-15-2-2012 |title=Constitution of Syria 2012 |via=Scribd |date=15 February 2012 |access-date=25 January 2013 }}</ref> under a [[totalitarian]]<ref>
*{{Cite book |last=Khamis, B. Gold, Vaughn |first=Sahar, Paul, Katherine |title=The Oxford Handbook of Propaganda Studies |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-19-976441-9 |editor-last=Auerbach, Castronovo |editor-first=Jonathan, Russ |location=198 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016 |pages=422 |chapter=22. Propaganda in Egypt and Syria's "Cyberwars": Contexts, Actors, Tools, and Tactics}}
*{{Cite book |last=Wieland |first=Carsten |title=Syria and the Neutrality Trap: The Dilemmas of Delivering Humanitarian Aid Through Violent Regimes |publisher=I. B. Tauris |year=2018 |isbn=978-0-7556-4138-3 |location=50 Bedford Square, London, WC1B 3DP, UK |pages=68 |chapter=6: De-neutralizing Aid: All Roads Lead to Damascus}}
*{{Cite book |last=Ahmed |first=Saladdin |title=Totalitarian Space and the Destruction of Aura |publisher=Suny Press |year=2019 |isbn=9781438472911 |location=State University of New York Press, Albany |pages=144, 149}}
*{{Cite book |last=Hensman |first=Rohini |title=Indefensible: Democracy, Counterrevolution, and the Rhetoric of Anti-Imperialism |publisher=Haymarket Books |year=2018 |isbn=978-1-60846-912-3 |location=Chicago, Illinois |chapter=7: The Syrian Uprising}}</ref> [[hereditary dictatorship]]
| leader_title1          = [[President of Syria|President]]
| leader_name1          = [[Bashar al-Assad]]
| leader_title2          = [[Vice President of Syria|Vice President]]
| leader_name2          = [[Najah al-Attar]]
| leader_title3          = [[Prime Minister of Syria|Prime Minister]]
| leader_name3          = [[Hussein Arnous]]
| leader_title4          = [[Speaker of the People's Assembly of Syria|Speaker of the People's Assembly]]
| leader_name4          = [[Hammouda Sabbagh]]
| legislature            = [[People's Assembly of Syria|People's Assembly]]
| established_event1    = [[Arab Kingdom of Syria]]
| established_date1      = 8 March 1920
| established_event2    = [[State of Syria (1925–1930)|State of Syria]] under [[Mandate for Syria and Lebanon|French mandate]]
| established_date2      = 1 December 1924
| established_event3    = [[Mandatory Syrian Republic|Syrian Republic]]
| established_date3      = 14 May 1930
| established_event4    = ''De jure'' Independence
| established_date4      = 24 October 1945
| established_event5    = ''De facto'' [[Independent First Syrian Republic|Independence]]
| established_date5      = 17 April 1946
| established_event6    = Left the [[United Arab Republic]]
| established_date6      = {{nowrap|28 September 1961}}
| established_event7    = {{nowrap|[[Ba'ath Party]] [[1963 Syrian coup d'état|takes power]]}}
| established_date7      = 8 March 1963
| established_event8    = [[Constitution of Syria|Current constitution]]
| established_date8      = 27 February 2012
| area_km2              = 185180<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mofa.gov.sy/cweb/MOEX_NEW/syria/Overview.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120511155611/http://mofa.gov.sy/cweb/MOEX_NEW/syria/Overview.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=2012-05-11|title= Syrian ministry of foreign affairs}}</ref>
| area_rank              = 87th <!-- Area rank should match [[List of countries and dependencies by area]]-->
| area_sq_mi            = 71479 <!-- Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]] -->
| percent_water          = 1.1
| population_estimate    = 29,310,000 <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://worldpopulationreview.com/countries/syria-population|access-date=25 December 2022|title=Syria population 2022|publisher=World Population Review}}</ref>
| population_estimate_year = 2022
| population_estimate_rank = 50th
| population_density_km2 = 118.3
| population_density_sq_mi = 306.5 <!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]]-->
| population_density_rank = 70th
| GDP_PPP                = {{nowrap| {{increase}} $623.72 billion<ref name=CIA>{{cite web | url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/syria/#people-and-society | title=Syria | work=The World Factbook |publisher=Central Intelligence Agency | access-date=7 April 2021}}</ref><!--end nowrap:-->}}
| GDP_PPP_year          = 2022
| GDP_PPP_rank          =
| GDP_PPP_per_capita    = {{increase}} $21,280 <ref name="CIA" />
| GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank =
| GDP_nominal            = {{nowrap|{{increase}} $468.96 billion<ref name="CIA" />}}
| GDP_nominal_year      = 2022
| GDP_nominal_rank      =
| GDP_nominal_per_capita = {{increase}} $16,000
| GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank =
| Gini                  = 38.8 <!-- number only -->
| Gini_year              = 2014
| Gini_change            = <! --increase/decrease/steady -->
| Gini_ref              = <ref>{{cite web |url=http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.GINI/ |title=World Bank GINI index |publisher= World Bank |access-date=22 January 2013}}</ref>
| Gini_rank              =
| HDI                    = 0.777<!--number only-->
| HDI_year              = 2022<!-- Please use the year to which the data refers, not the publication year -->
| HDI_change            = increase <!-- increase/decrease/steady -->
| HDI_ref                = <ref name="HDI">{{cite web|url=https://hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/global-report-document/hdr2021-22pdf_1.pdf|title=Human Development Report 2021/2022|language=en|publisher=[[United Nations Development Programme]]|date=8 September 2022|access-date=8 September 2022}}</ref>
| HDI_rank              =
| currency              = [[Syrian pound]]
| currency_code          = SYP
| time_zone              =
| utc_offset            = +3
| utc_offset_DST        =
| time_zone_DST          =
| drives_on              = right
| calling_code          = [[Telephone numbers in Syria|+963]]
| iso3166code            = SY
| cctld                  = [[.sy]]<br />[[سوريا.]]
| demonym                = Syrian
| today                  =
| ethnic_groups_year    = 2018<ref name="CIA - The World Factbook">{{cite web |title=Syria: People and society |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/syria/#people-and-society |website=The World Factbook |date=10 May 2022 |publisher=CIA}}</ref>
}}
 
'''Syria''' ({{lang-ar|سُورِيَا or سُورِيَة|translit=Sūriyā}}), officially the '''Syrian Arab Republic''' ({{lang-ar|الجمهورية العربية السورية|al-Jumhūrīyah al-ʻArabīyah as-Sūrīyah}}), is a [[Western Asia]]n country located in the [[Eastern Mediterranean]] and the [[Levant]]. It is a [[unitary state|unitary]] [[republic]] that consists of [[Governorates of Syria|14 governorates]] (subdivisions), and is bordered by the [[Mediterranean Sea]] to the west, [[Turkey]] to the north, [[Iraq]] to [[Iraq–Syria border|the east and southeast]], [[Jordan]] to [[Jordan–Syria border|the south]], and [[Israel]] and [[Lebanon]] to [[Lebanon–Syria border|the southwest]]. [[Cyprus]] lies to the west across the Mediterranean Sea. A country of fertile plains, high mountains, and deserts, Syria is home to [[demographics of Syria|diverse ethnic and religious groups]], including the majority [[Syrians|Syrian Arabs]], [[Kurds in Syria|Kurds]], [[Syrian Turkmen|Turkmens]], [[Assyrians in Syria|Assyrians]], [[Circassians in Syria|Circassians]],<ref>{{cite book|first=Moshe|last=Gammer|title=The Caspian Region: The Caucasus|volume=2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5CVBWjMAtLEC|publisher=Routledge|year=2004|isbn=978-0-203-00512-5|page=64}}</ref> [[Armenians in Syria|Armenians]], [[Albanians in Syria|Albanians]], [[Greeks in Syria|Greeks]], and [[Chechens in Syria|Chechens]]. Religious groups include [[Muslims]], [[Christianity in Syria|Christians]], [[Alawites]], [[Druze#In Syria|Druze]], and [[Yazidis]]. The capital and [[list of cities in Syria|largest city]] of Syria is [[Damascus]]. Arabs are the largest ethnic group, and Sunni Muslims are the largest religious group. Syria is the only country that is governed by [[Neo-ba'athism|Ba'athists]], who advocate [[Arab socialism]] and [[Arab nationalism]]. Syria is a member of the [[Non-Aligned Movement]].
 
The name "Syria" historically referred to a [[Syria (region)|wider region]], broadly synonymous with the Levant,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Adam |title=Stele to the Propagation in China of the Jingjiao of Daqin|URL=https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Nestorian_Monument:_An_Ancient_Record_of_Christianity_in_China/Translation_of_the_Nestorian_Inscription|translator-last =Wylie |translator-first=Alexander|year=781}}</ref> and known in Arabic as ''al-Sham''. The modern state encompasses the sites of several ancient kingdoms and empires, including the [[Ebla]]n civilization of the 3rd millennium [[Before Christ|BC]]. [[Aleppo]] and the capital city Damascus are among the [[List of oldest continuously inhabited cities|oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world]].<ref>{{cite web|url = http://ancientneareast.tripod.com/Ramad.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061111111827/http://ancientneareast.tripod.com/Ramad.html |archive-date=11 November 2006 |title=Neolithic Tell Ramad in the Damascus Basin of Syria |publisher= Archive |access-date=25 January 2013}}</ref> In the [[Islam]]ic era, Damascus was the seat of the [[Umayyad Caliphate]] and a provincial capital of the [[Mamluk Sultanate]] in [[Lower Egypt|Egypt]]. The modern Syrian state was established in the mid-20th century [[Ottoman Syria|after centuries of Ottoman rule]]. After a period as a [[Mandate for Syria and Lebanon|French mandate]] (1923–1946), the newly-created state represented the largest Arab state to emerge from the formerly [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]]-ruled Syrian provinces. It gained ''de jure'' independence as a [[Democracy|democratic]] [[parliamentary republic]] on 24 October 1945 when the [[First Syrian Republic|Republic of Syria]] became a founding member of the United Nations, an act which legally ended the former French mandate (although French troops did not leave the country until April 1946).
 
The post-independence period was tumultuous, with multiple [[military coup]]s and coup attempts shaking the country between 1949 and 1971. In 1958, Syria entered a brief union with Egypt called the [[United Arab Republic]], which was terminated by the [[1961 Syrian coup d'état]]. The republic was renamed as the Arab Republic of Syria in late 1961 after the [[1961 Syrian constitutional referendum|December 1 constitutional referendum]] of that year. A significant event was the [[1963 Syrian coup d'état|1963 coup d'état]] carried out by the [[Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Syria Region#Military Bureau|military committee]] of the [[Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Syria Region|Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party]] which established a [[one-party state]]. It ran Syria under emergency law from 1963 to 2011, effectively suspending constitutional protections for citizens. Internal power-struggles within [[Neo-ba'athist|neo-Ba'athist]] factions caused further coups in [[1966 Syrian coup d'état|1966]] and [[1970 Syrian coup d'état|1970]], which eventually resulted in the seizure of power by General [[Hafez al-Assad]]. Assad assigned [[Alawites|Alawite]] loyalists to key posts in the [[Syrian Armed Forces|armed forces]], [[bureaucracy]], ''[[Military Intelligence Directorate (Syria)|Mukhabarat]]'' and the ruling elite; effectively establishing an "Alawi minority rule" to consolidate power within his family.<ref name="The Sturdy House That Assad Built2">{{cite magazine |author=Michael Bröning |date=7 March 2011 |title=The Sturdy House That Assad Built |url=http://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/67561/michael-broening/the-sturdy-house-that-assad-built |magazine=Foreign Affairs}}</ref>
 
After the death of Hafez al-Assad in 2000, his son [[Bashar al-Assad]] inherited the [[President of Syria|presidency]] and political system centred around a [[Al-Assad family#Cult of Personality|cult of personality]] to [[al-Assad family]].<ref name="The Sturdy House That Assad Built">{{cite magazine |url=http://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/67561/michael-broening/the-sturdy-house-that-assad-built |title=The Sturdy House That Assad Built |date=7 March 2011 |author=Michael Bröning |magazine=Foreign Affairs }}</ref> The Ba'ath regime has been condemned for numerous [[Human rights in Syria|human rights abuses]], including [[Capital punishment in Syria|frequent executions of citizens and political prisoners]], [[Internet censorship in Syria|massive censorship]]<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|chapter-url=https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2019/country-chapters/syria|title=World Report 2019: Rights Trends in Syria|chapter=Syria: Events of 2018 |date=17 December 2018|publisher=Human Rights Watch}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=OHCHR {{!}} IICISyria Independent International Commission of Inquiry on the Syrian Arab Republic|url=https://www.ohchr.org/En/HRBodies/HRC/IICISyria/Pages/IndependentInternationalCommission.aspx|access-date=2020-10-19|website=www.ohchr.org}}</ref> and for financing a multi-billion dollar [[illegal drug trade|illicit drug trade]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Rose, Söderholm |first=Caroline, Alexander |date=April 2022 |title=The Captagon Threat: A Profile of Illicit Trade, Consumption, and Regional Realities |url=https://newlinesinstitute.org/wp-content/uploads/20220404-Captagon_Report-NLISAP-final-.pdf |journal= |publisher=New Lines Institute |pages=2–39 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220412214650if_/https://newlinesinstitute.org/wp-content/uploads/20220404-Captagon_Report-NLISAP-final-.pdf |archive-date=12 April 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Is the Syrian Regime the World's Biggest Drug Dealer?|url=https://www.vice.com/amp/en/article/v7v8k8/syria-captagon-pills-drug-trade|date=14 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221215143400/https://www.vice.com/amp/en/article/v7v8k8/syria-captagon-pills-drug-trade|archive-date=15 December 2022|website=Vice World News}}</ref> Following its violent suppression of the [[Arab Spring]] protests of the [[2011 Syrian Revolution]], the [[Government of Syria|Syrian government]] was suspended from the [[Arab League]] in November 2011<ref name="NYT Arab League">{{cite news |last=MacFarquhar |first=Neil |date=12 November 2011 |title=Arab League Votes to Suspend Syria |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/11/13/world/middleeast/arab-league-votes-to-suspend-syria-over-its-crackdown-on-protesters.html |access-date=12 November 2011}}</ref> and quit the [[Union for the Mediterranean]] the following month.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.xinhuanet.com/english2010/world/2011-12/01/c_131282989.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111206201635/http://news.xinhuanet.com/english2010/world/2011-12/01/c_131282989.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=6 December 2011 |title=Syria suspends its membership in Mediterranean union |date= 1 December 2012 |publisher=Xinhua News Agency }}</ref>
Since July 2011, Syria has been embroiled in a [[Syrian civil war|multi-sided civil war]], with the [[Foreign involvement in the Syrian civil war|involvement of different countries]]. The [[Organisation of Islamic Cooperation]] suspended Syria in August 2012 citing "deep concern at the massacres and inhuman acts" perpetrated by forces loyal to Bashar al-Assad.{{Efn|Sources:
* <ref name="CNN OIC">{{cite news |date=14 August 2012 |title=Regional group votes to suspend Syria; rebels claim downing of jet |publisher=CNN |url=http://edition.cnn.com/2012/08/13/world/meast/syria-unrest/index.html?hpt=hp_t1 |access-date=14 August 2012}}</ref>
* {{Cite news |last=Alsharif |first=Asma |date=16 August 2012 |title=Organization of Islamic Cooperation suspends Syria |work=[[Reuters]] |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-syria-crisis-islamic-summit-idUSBRE87E19F20120816 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220922013349/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-syria-crisis-islamic-summit-idUSBRE87E19F20120816 |archive-date=24 September 2022}}
* {{Cite news |date=16 August 2012 |title=Islamic bloc suspends Syria membership over crisis |work=DW News |url=https://amp.dw.com/en/islamic-bloc-suspends-syria-membership-over-crisis/a-16169355 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180627112504/http://www.dw.com/en/islamic-bloc-suspends-syria-membership-over-crisis/a-16169355 |archive-date=27 June 2018}}
* {{Cite news |date=16 August 2012 |title=Organisation of Islamic Cooperation suspends Syria |work=Ahram Online |url=https://english.ahram.org.eg/NewsContent/2/8/50565/World/Region/Organisation-of-Islamic-Cooperation-suspends-Syria.aspx |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180701041619/https://english.ahram.org.eg/NewsContent/2/8/50565/World/Region/Organisation-of-Islamic-Cooperation-suspends-Syria.aspx |archive-date=1 July 2018}}
* {{Cite news |date=16 August 2012 |title=OIC Suspends Syria Over Crackdown |work=RFE/RL |url=https://www.rferl.org/amp/oic-suspends-syria/24678392.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230208075035/https://www.rferl.org/amp/oic-suspends-syria/24678392.html |archive-date=8 February 2023}}}} As of 2020, three political entities – the [[Syrian Interim Government]], [[Syrian Salvation Government]], and [[Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria]] – have emerged in Syrian territory to challenge Assad's rule.
 
Syria was ranked last on the [[Global Peace Index]] from 2016 to 2018,<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://visionofhumanity.org/indexes/global-peace-index/|title=Global Peace Index|publisher=Vision of Humanity|language=en-us|access-date=2019-10-14}}</ref> making it the most violent country in the world due to the war. Syria is the most corrupt country in the [[MENA]] region and was ranked the second lowest globally on the 2022 [[Corruption Perceptions Index]].{{Efn| Sources:
* * {{Cite web |date=2022 |title= Corruption Perceptions Index - 2022|url=https://www.transparency.org/en/cpi/2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230204001659/https://www.transparency.org/en/cpi/2022 |archive-date=4 February 2023 |website=[[Transparency International]]}}
* {{Cite news |date=31 January 2023 |title=Middle East corruption rankings: Syria most corrupt, UAE least, Turkey slipped |work=Al-Monitor |url=https://www.al-monitor.com/originals/2023/01/middle-east-corruption-rankings-syria-most-corrupt-uae-least-turkey-slipped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230203201215/https://www.al-monitor.com/originals/2023/01/middle-east-corruption-rankings-syria-most-corrupt-uae-least-turkey-slipped |archive-date=3 February 2023}}
* {{Cite web |date=2022 |title=Corruption in Syria |url=https://www.worlddata.info/asia/syria/corruption.php |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221114115146/https://www.worlddata.info/asia/syria/corruption.php |archive-date=14 November 2022 |website=Worlddata.info}}
* {{Cite news |date=31 January 2023 |title=Syria, Yemen and Libya among 'lowest in the world' for corruption perceptions |work=The New Arab |url=https://www.newarab.com/news/syria-yemen-and-libya-rank-among-lowest-corruption-index?amp |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230208070207/https://www.newarab.com/news/syria-yemen-and-libya-rank-among-lowest-corruption-index?amp |archive-date=8 February 2023}}}} The [[Syrian civil war]] has killed more than 570,000 people,<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.syriahr.com/en/?p=120851|title=More than 570 thousand people were killed on the Syrian territory within 8 years of revolution demanding freedom, democracy, justice, and equality |publisher=The Syrian Observatory for Human Rights|date=15 March 2019}}</ref> with pro-Assad forces causing more than 90% of the [[Casualties of the Syrian civil war|total civilian casualties]].{{efn|Sources:<ref>{{Cite news |date=20 June 2022 |title=Assad, Iran, Russia committed 91% of civilian killings in Syria |work=Middle East Monitor |url=https://www.middleeastmonitor.com/20220620-assad-iran-russia-committed-91-of-civilian-killings-in-syria/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230104153837/https://www.middleeastmonitor.com/20220620-assad-iran-russia-committed-91-of-civilian-killings-in-syria/ |archive-date=4 January 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=September 2022 |title=Civilian Death Toll |url=https://snhr.org/blog/2021/06/14/civilian-death-toll/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220305114908/https://snhr.org/blog/2021/06/14/civilian-death-toll/ |archive-date=5 March 2022 |website=SNHR}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=19 June 2022 |title=91 percent of civilian deaths caused by Syrian regime and Russian forces: rights group |work=The New Arab |url=https://www.newarab.com/news/syria-regime-and-russia-caused-91-deaths-report |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230105112752/https://www.newarab.com/news/syria-regime-and-russia-caused-91-deaths-report |archive-date=5 January 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=2020 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices: Syria |url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2020-country-reports-on-human-rights-practices/syria/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220702114009/https://www.state.gov/reports/2020-country-reports-on-human-rights-practices/syria/ |archive-date=2 July 2022 |website=U.S Department of State}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=11 January 2015 |title=In Syria's Civilian Death Toll, The Islamic State Group, Or ISIS, Is A Far Smaller Threat Than Bashar Assad |url=https://www.syriahr.com/en/9311/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220406183001/https://www.syriahr.com/en/9311/ |archive-date=6 April 2022 |website=SOHR}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=11 March 2021 |title=Assad's War on the Syrian People Continues |url=https://www.syriahr.com/en/208389/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210313163249/https://www.syriahr.com/en/208389/ |archive-date=13 March 2021 |website=SOHR}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Roth |first=Kenneth |date=9 January 2017 |title=Barack Obama's Shaky Legacy on Human Rights |url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2017/01/09/barack-obamas-shaky-legacy-human-rights |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210202082511/https://www.hrw.org/news/2017/01/09/barack-obamas-shaky-legacy-human-rights |archive-date=2 February 2021 |website=Human Rights Watch}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=The Regional War in Syria: Summary of Caabu event with Christopher Phillips |url=https://www.caabu.org/news/news/regional-war-syria-summary-caabu-event-christopher-phillips |website=Council for Arab-British Understanding}}</ref>}} The war led to the [[Syrian refugee crisis]], with an estimated 7.6 million [[Forced displacement|internally displaced people]] (July 2015 [[UNHCR]] figure) and over 5 million [[Refugees of the Syrian civil war|refugees]] (July 2017 registered by [[United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees|UNHCR]]),<ref>{{cite web|url=http://data.unhcr.org/syrianrefugees/regional.php|title=UNHCR Syria Regional Refugee Response|publisher=United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) |access-date=9 August 2013|archive-date=19 February 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180219072255/http://www.data.unhcr.org/syrianrefugees/regional.php|url-status=dead}}</ref> making population assessment difficult in recent years. The war has also worsened economic conditions, with more than 90% of the population living in [[poverty]] and 80% facing [[food insecurity]].{{Efn|<ref>{{Cite web |date=18 October 2022 |title=Syria: Unprecedented rise in poverty rate, significant shortfall in humanitarian aid funding |url=https://reliefweb.int/report/syrian-arab-republic/syria-unprecedented-rise-poverty-rate-significant-shortfall-humanitarian-aid-funding-enar |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221102114516/https://reliefweb.int/report/syrian-arab-republic/syria-unprecedented-rise-poverty-rate-significant-shortfall-humanitarian-aid-funding-enar |archive-date=2 November 2022 |website=Reliefweb}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2022 |title=Every Day Counts: Children of Syria cannot wait any longer |url=https://www.unicef.org/syria/every-day-counts |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220713133947/https://www.unicef.org/syria/every-day-counts |archive-date=13 July 2022 |website=unicef}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=15 March 2022 |title=Hunger, poverty and rising prices: How one family in Syria bears the burden of 11 years of conflict |url=https://reliefweb.int/report/syrian-arab-republic/hunger-poverty-and-rising-prices-how-one-family-syria-bears-burden-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220316060615/https://reliefweb.int/report/syrian-arab-republic/hunger-poverty-and-rising-prices-how-one-family-syria-bears-burden-11 |archive-date=16 March 2022 |website=reliefweb}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=14 January 2022 |title=UN Chief says 90% of Syrians live below poverty line |url=https://www.middleeastmonitor.com/20220114-un-chief-says-90-of-syrians-live-below-poverty-line/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203030404/https://www.middleeastmonitor.com/20220114-un-chief-says-90-of-syrians-live-below-poverty-line/ |archive-date=3 December 2022}}</ref>}}
 
== Etymology ==<!--linked-->
{{Main|Name of Syria}}
 
Several sources indicate that the name ''Syria'' is derived from the 8th century BC [[Luwian]] term "Sura/i", and the derivative [[ancient Greek]] name: {{lang|el|Σύριοι}}, ''{{transliteration|grc|Sýrioi}}'', or {{lang|el|Σύροι}}, ''{{transliteration|grc|Sýroi}}'', both of which originally derived from Aššūr ([[Assyria]]) in northern [[Mesopotamia]] (present-day Iraq).<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Rollinger | first1 = Robert | year = 2006 | title = The terms "Assyria" and "Syria" again | journal = Journal of Near Eastern Studies | volume = 65 | issue = 4| pages = 284–287 | doi = 10.1086/511103 | s2cid = 162760021 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Frye | first1 = R. N. | year = 1992 | title = Assyria and Syria: Synonyms | url = https://semanticscholar.org/paper/410d361bda63b8bd5f98f00d03de0fd10ad8e9ce| journal = Journal of Near Eastern Studies | volume = 51 | issue = 4| pages = 281–285 | doi = 10.1086/373570 | s2cid = 161323237 }}</ref> However, from the [[Seleucid Empire]] (323–150 BC), this term was also applied to [[The Levant]], and from this point the Greeks applied the term without distinction between the [[Assyrian people|Assyrians]] of Mesopotamia and [[Arameans]] of the Levant.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Herodotus |url=https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/History_of_Herodotus/Book_7 |title=The History of Herodotus (Rawlinson)}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |first=John |last=Joseph |title=Assyria and Syria: Synonyms?|url=http://www.jaas.org/edocs/v11n2/JohnJoseph.pdf |year=2008}}</ref> Mainstream modern academic opinion strongly favors the argument that the Greek word is related to the cognate {{lang|el|Ἀσσυρία}}, ''{{transliteration|grc|[[Assyria]]}}'', ultimately derived from the [[Akkadian language|Akkadian]] ''{{transliteration|akk|[[Assur|Aššur]]}}''.<ref>First proposed by [[Theodor Nöldeke]] in 1881; cf. {{cite web |last=Harper |first=Douglas |url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=Syria |title=Syria |work=Online Etymology Dictionary |date=November 2001 |access-date=13 June 2007}}</ref> The Greek name appears to correspond to [[Phoenician language|Phoenician]]  ''{{lang|phn|ʾšr}}'' "Assur", ''{{lang|phn|ʾšrym}}'' "Assyrians", recorded in the 8th century BC [[Çineköy inscription]].<ref name="Rollinger">{{Cite journal |last=Rollinger |first=Robert |date=2006-10-01 |title=The Terms "Assyria" and "Syria" Again |url=https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/511103 |journal=Journal of Near Eastern Studies |volume=65 |issue=4 |pages=283–287 |doi=10.1086/511103 |s2cid=162760021 |issn=0022-2968}}</ref>
 
The area designated by the word has changed over time. Classically, Syria lies at the eastern end of the Mediterranean, between [[Arabia]] to the south and [[Asia Minor]] to the north, stretching inland to include parts of Iraq, and having an uncertain border to the northeast that [[Pliny the Elder]] describes as including, from west to east, [[Commagene]], [[Sophene]], and [[Adiabene]].<ref>{{cite book |author=Pliny |author-link=Pliny the Elder |chapter-url=https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/L/Roman/Texts/Pliny_the_Elder/5*.html |title=Natural History |chapter=Book 5 Section 66 |publisher=University of Chicago|others=77AD |date=March 1998 |isbn=978-84-249-1901-6}}</ref>
 
By Pliny's time, however, this larger Syria had been divided into a number of provinces under the [[Roman Empire]] (but politically independent from each other): [[Iudaea Province|Judaea]], later renamed [[Palestina (region)|Palaestina]] in AD 135 (the region corresponding to [[Modern Israel|modern-day Israel]], the Palestinian Territories, and Jordan) in the extreme southwest; [[Phoenice (Roman province)|Phoenice]] (established in AD 194) corresponding to modern Lebanon, Damascus and Homs regions; [[Coele-Syria]] (or "Hollow Syria") and south of the [[An Nahr al Kabir|Eleutheris river]].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/578856/Syria/29905/Roman-provincial-organization#default |title=Syria :: Roman provincial organization|encyclopedia=Britannica Online Encyclopedia |access-date=25 October 2008}}</ref>

Latest revision as of 15:43, 7 July 2023

This article is about the modern state of Syria. For other uses, see Syrian Arab Republic (disambiguation).

Template:Coord/display/title

Syrian Arab Republic

الجمهورية العربية السورية (Arabic)
al-Jumhūrīyah al-ʻArabīyah as-Sūrīyah
Flag of Syria
Flag
Coat of arms of Syria
Coat of arms
Motto: وَحْدَةٌ ، حُرِّيَّةٌ ، اِشْتِرَاكِيَّةٌ
Waḥdah, Ḥurrīyah, Ishtirākīyah
"Unity, Freedom, Socialism"
Anthem: حُمَاةَ الدِّيَارِ
Ḥumāt ad-Diyār
"Guardians of the Homeland"
Syria (orthographic projection) disputed.svg
Syria in dark green, claim to much of Turkey's Hatay Province and Israeli-occupied Golan Heights shown in light green
Syria - Location Map (2013) - SYR - UNOCHA.svg
Capital
and largest city
 Damascus
33°30′N 36°18′E
Official languages Arabic[1]
Ethnic groups
(2018[2])
 75% Arabs
10% Kurds
15% Others (including Turkomans, Assyrians, Circassians, Armenians and others)[2][3]
Religion
87% Islam
10% Christianity[2]
3% Druze
Demonym(s) Syrian
Government Unitary semi-presidential republic[4] under a totalitarian[5] hereditary dictatorship
• President
Bashar al-Assad
Najah al-Attar
Hussein Arnous
Hammouda Sabbagh
Legislature People's Assembly
Establishment
8 March 1920
1 December 1924
14 May 1930
• De jure Independence
24 October 1945
• De facto Independence
17 April 1946
• Left the United Arab Republic
28 September 1961
8 March 1963
27 February 2012
Area
• Total
 185,180[6] km2 (71,500 sq mi) (87th)
• Water (%)
 1.1
Population
• 2022 estimate
 29,310,000 [7] (50th)
• Density
 118.3/km2 (306.4/sq mi) (70th)
GDP (PPP) 2022 estimate
• Total
 Increase $623.72 billion[8]
• Per capita
 Increase $21,280 [8]
GDP (nominal) 2022 estimate
• Total
 Increase $468.96 billion[8]
• Per capita
 Increase $16,000
Gini (2014) 38.8[9]
medium
HDI (2022) Increase 0.777[10]
high
Currency Syrian pound (SYP)
Time zone UTC+3
Driving side right
Calling code +963
ISO 3166 code SY
Internet TLD .sy
سوريا.

Syria (Arabic: سُورِيَا or سُورِيَة‎, translit. Sūriyā), officially the Syrian Arab Republic (Arabic: الجمهورية العربية السورية‎, translit. al-Jumhūrīyah al-ʻArabīyah as-Sūrīyah), is a Western Asian country located in the Eastern Mediterranean and the Levant. It is a unitary republic that consists of 14 governorates (subdivisions), and is bordered by the Mediterranean Sea to the west, Turkey to the north, Iraq to the east and southeast, Jordan to the south, and Israel and Lebanon to the southwest. Cyprus lies to the west across the Mediterranean Sea. A country of fertile plains, high mountains, and deserts, Syria is home to diverse ethnic and religious groups, including the majority Syrian Arabs, Kurds, Turkmens, Assyrians, Circassians,[11] Armenians, Albanians, Greeks, and Chechens. Religious groups include Muslims, Christians, Alawites, Druze, and Yazidis. The capital and largest city of Syria is Damascus. Arabs are the largest ethnic group, and Sunni Muslims are the largest religious group. Syria is the only country that is governed by Ba'athists, who advocate Arab socialism and Arab nationalism. Syria is a member of the Non-Aligned Movement.

The name "Syria" historically referred to a wider region, broadly synonymous with the Levant,[12] and known in Arabic as al-Sham. The modern state encompasses the sites of several ancient kingdoms and empires, including the Eblan civilization of the 3rd millennium BC. Aleppo and the capital city Damascus are among the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world.[13] In the Islamic era, Damascus was the seat of the Umayyad Caliphate and a provincial capital of the Mamluk Sultanate in Egypt. The modern Syrian state was established in the mid-20th century after centuries of Ottoman rule. After a period as a French mandate (1923–1946), the newly-created state represented the largest Arab state to emerge from the formerly Ottoman-ruled Syrian provinces. It gained de jure independence as a democratic parliamentary republic on 24 October 1945 when the Republic of Syria became a founding member of the United Nations, an act which legally ended the former French mandate (although French troops did not leave the country until April 1946).

The post-independence period was tumultuous, with multiple military coups and coup attempts shaking the country between 1949 and 1971. In 1958, Syria entered a brief union with Egypt called the United Arab Republic, which was terminated by the 1961 Syrian coup d'état. The republic was renamed as the Arab Republic of Syria in late 1961 after the December 1 constitutional referendum of that year. A significant event was the 1963 coup d'état carried out by the military committee of the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party which established a one-party state. It ran Syria under emergency law from 1963 to 2011, effectively suspending constitutional protections for citizens. Internal power-struggles within neo-Ba'athist factions caused further coups in 1966 and 1970, which eventually resulted in the seizure of power by General Hafez al-Assad. Assad assigned Alawite loyalists to key posts in the armed forces, bureaucracy, Mukhabarat and the ruling elite; effectively establishing an "Alawi minority rule" to consolidate power within his family.[14]

After the death of Hafez al-Assad in 2000, his son Bashar al-Assad inherited the presidency and political system centred around a cult of personality to al-Assad family.[15] The Ba'ath regime has been condemned for numerous human rights abuses, including frequent executions of citizens and political prisoners, massive censorship[16][17] and for financing a multi-billion dollar illicit drug trade.[18][19] Following its violent suppression of the Arab Spring protests of the 2011 Syrian Revolution, the Syrian government was suspended from the Arab League in November 2011[20] and quit the Union for the Mediterranean the following month.[21] Since July 2011, Syria has been embroiled in a multi-sided civil war, with the involvement of different countries. The Organisation of Islamic Cooperation suspended Syria in August 2012 citing "deep concern at the massacres and inhuman acts" perpetrated by forces loyal to Bashar al-Assad.[a] As of 2020, three political entities – the Syrian Interim Government, Syrian Salvation Government, and Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria – have emerged in Syrian territory to challenge Assad's rule.

Syria was ranked last on the Global Peace Index from 2016 to 2018,[23] making it the most violent country in the world due to the war. Syria is the most corrupt country in the MENA region and was ranked the second lowest globally on the 2022 Corruption Perceptions Index.[b] The Syrian civil war has killed more than 570,000 people,[24] with pro-Assad forces causing more than 90% of the total civilian casualties.[c] The war led to the Syrian refugee crisis, with an estimated 7.6 million internally displaced people (July 2015 UNHCR figure) and over 5 million refugees (July 2017 registered by UNHCR),[33] making population assessment difficult in recent years. The war has also worsened economic conditions, with more than 90% of the population living in poverty and 80% facing food insecurity.[d]

Etymology

Main article: Name of Syria

Several sources indicate that the name Syria is derived from the 8th century BC Luwian term "Sura/i", and the derivative ancient Greek name: Σύριοι, Sýrioi, or Σύροι, Sýroi, both of which originally derived from Aššūr (Assyria) in northern Mesopotamia (present-day Iraq).[38][39] However, from the Seleucid Empire (323–150 BC), this term was also applied to The Levant, and from this point the Greeks applied the term without distinction between the Assyrians of Mesopotamia and Arameans of the Levant.[40][41] Mainstream modern academic opinion strongly favors the argument that the Greek word is related to the cognate Ἀσσυρία, Assyria, ultimately derived from the Akkadian Aššur.[42] The Greek name appears to correspond to Phoenician ʾšr "Assur", ʾšrym "Assyrians", recorded in the 8th century BC Çineköy inscription.[43]

The area designated by the word has changed over time. Classically, Syria lies at the eastern end of the Mediterranean, between Arabia to the south and Asia Minor to the north, stretching inland to include parts of Iraq, and having an uncertain border to the northeast that Pliny the Elder describes as including, from west to east, Commagene, Sophene, and Adiabene.[44]

By Pliny's time, however, this larger Syria had been divided into a number of provinces under the Roman Empire (but politically independent from each other): Judaea, later renamed Palaestina in AD 135 (the region corresponding to modern-day Israel, the Palestinian Territories, and Jordan) in the extreme southwest; Phoenice (established in AD 194) corresponding to modern Lebanon, Damascus and Homs regions; Coele-Syria (or "Hollow Syria") and south of the Eleutheris river.[45]

  1. ↑ "Constitution of the Syrian Arab Republic – 2012" (PDF). International Labour Organization. Retrieved 31 August 2020. 
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 "Syria: People and society". The World Factbook. CIA. 10 May 2022. 
  3. ↑ "Largest Ethnic Groups In Syria". WorldAtlas. 7 June 2018. Retrieved 18 August 2022. 
  4. ↑ "Constitution of Syria 2012". 15 February 2012. Retrieved 25 January 2013 – via Scribd. 
  5. ↑
    • Khamis, B. Gold, Vaughn, Sahar, Paul, Katherine (2013). "22. Propaganda in Egypt and Syria's "Cyberwars": Contexts, Actors, Tools, and Tactics". In Auerbach, Castronovo, Jonathan, Russ. The Oxford Handbook of Propaganda Studies. 198 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016: Oxford University Press. p. 422. ISBN 978-0-19-976441-9. 
    • Wieland, Carsten (2018). "6: De-neutralizing Aid: All Roads Lead to Damascus". Syria and the Neutrality Trap: The Dilemmas of Delivering Humanitarian Aid Through Violent Regimes. 50 Bedford Square, London, WC1B 3DP, UK: I. B. Tauris. p. 68. ISBN 978-0-7556-4138-3. 
    • Ahmed, Saladdin (2019). Totalitarian Space and the Destruction of Aura. State University of New York Press, Albany: Suny Press. pp. 144, 149. ISBN 9781438472911. 
    • Hensman, Rohini (2018). "7: The Syrian Uprising". Indefensible: Democracy, Counterrevolution, and the Rhetoric of Anti-Imperialism. Chicago, Illinois: Haymarket Books. ISBN 978-1-60846-912-3. 
  6. ↑ "Syrian ministry of foreign affairs". Archived from the original on 2012-05-11.  Unknown parameter |url-status= ignored (help)
  7. ↑ "Syria population 2022". World Population Review. Retrieved 25 December 2022. 
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 "Syria". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. Retrieved 7 April 2021. 
  9. ↑ "World Bank GINI index". World Bank. Retrieved 22 January 2013. 
  10. ↑ "Human Development Report 2021/2022" (PDF). United Nations Development Programme. 8 September 2022. Retrieved 8 September 2022. 
  11. ↑ Gammer, Moshe (2004). The Caspian Region: The Caucasus. 2. Routledge. p. 64. ISBN 978-0-203-00512-5. 
  12. ↑ Adam (781). Stele to the Propagation in China of the Jingjiao of Daqin. Translated by Wylie, Alexander. 
  13. ↑ "Neolithic Tell Ramad in the Damascus Basin of Syria". Archive. Archived from the original on 11 November 2006. Retrieved 25 January 2013. 
  14. ↑ Template:Cite magazine
  15. ↑ Template:Cite magazine
  16. ↑ "Syria: Events of 2018". World Report 2019: Rights Trends in Syria. Human Rights Watch. 17 December 2018. 
  17. ↑ "OHCHR | IICISyria Independent International Commission of Inquiry on the Syrian Arab Republic". www.ohchr.org. Retrieved 2020-10-19. 
  18. ↑ Rose, Söderholm, Caroline, Alexander (April 2022). "The Captagon Threat: A Profile of Illicit Trade, Consumption, and Regional Realities" (PDF). New Lines Institute: 2–39. Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 April 2022. 
  19. ↑ "Is the Syrian Regime the World's Biggest Drug Dealer?". Vice World News. 14 December 2022. Archived from the original on 15 December 2022. 
  20. ↑ MacFarquhar, Neil (12 November 2011). "Arab League Votes to Suspend Syria". The New York Times. Retrieved 12 November 2011. 
  21. ↑ "Syria suspends its membership in Mediterranean union". Xinhua News Agency. 1 December 2012. Archived from the original on 6 December 2011.  Unknown parameter |url-status= ignored (help)
  22. ↑ "Regional group votes to suspend Syria; rebels claim downing of jet". CNN. 14 August 2012. Retrieved 14 August 2012. 
  23. ↑ "Global Peace Index". Vision of Humanity. Retrieved 2019-10-14. 
  24. ↑ "More than 570 thousand people were killed on the Syrian territory within 8 years of revolution demanding freedom, democracy, justice, and equality". The Syrian Observatory for Human Rights. 15 March 2019. 
  25. ↑ "Assad, Iran, Russia committed 91% of civilian killings in Syria". Middle East Monitor. 20 June 2022. Archived from the original on 4 January 2023. 
  26. ↑ "Civilian Death Toll". SNHR. September 2022. Archived from the original on 5 March 2022. 
  27. ↑ "91 percent of civilian deaths caused by Syrian regime and Russian forces: rights group". The New Arab. 19 June 2022. Archived from the original on 5 January 2023. 
  28. ↑ "2020 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices: Syria". U.S Department of State. Archived from the original on 2 July 2022. 
  29. ↑ "In Syria's Civilian Death Toll, The Islamic State Group, Or ISIS, Is A Far Smaller Threat Than Bashar Assad". SOHR. 11 January 2015. Archived from the original on 6 April 2022. 
  30. ↑ "Assad's War on the Syrian People Continues". SOHR. 11 March 2021. Archived from the original on 13 March 2021. 
  31. ↑ Roth, Kenneth (9 January 2017). "Barack Obama's Shaky Legacy on Human Rights". Human Rights Watch. Archived from the original on 2 February 2021. 
  32. ↑ "The Regional War in Syria: Summary of Caabu event with Christopher Phillips". Council for Arab-British Understanding. 
  33. ↑ "UNHCR Syria Regional Refugee Response". United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR). Archived from the original on 19 February 2018. Retrieved 9 August 2013.  Unknown parameter |url-status= ignored (help)
  34. ↑ "Syria: Unprecedented rise in poverty rate, significant shortfall in humanitarian aid funding". Reliefweb. 18 October 2022. Archived from the original on 2 November 2022. 
  35. ↑ "Every Day Counts: Children of Syria cannot wait any longer". unicef. 2022. Archived from the original on 13 July 2022. 
  36. ↑ "Hunger, poverty and rising prices: How one family in Syria bears the burden of 11 years of conflict". reliefweb. 15 March 2022. Archived from the original on 16 March 2022. 
  37. ↑ "UN Chief says 90% of Syrians live below poverty line". 14 January 2022. Archived from the original on 3 December 2022. 
  38. ↑ Rollinger, Robert (2006). "The terms "Assyria" and "Syria" again". Journal of Near Eastern Studies. 65 (4): 284–287. doi:10.1086/511103.  Unknown parameter |s2cid= ignored (help)
  39. ↑ Frye, R. N. (1992). "Assyria and Syria: Synonyms". Journal of Near Eastern Studies. 51 (4): 281–285. doi:10.1086/373570.  Unknown parameter |s2cid= ignored (help)
  40. ↑ Herodotus. The History of Herodotus (Rawlinson). 
  41. ↑ Joseph, John (2008). "Assyria and Syria: Synonyms?" (PDF). 
  42. ↑ First proposed by Theodor Nöldeke in 1881; cf. Harper, Douglas (November 2001). "Syria". Online Etymology Dictionary. Retrieved 13 June 2007. 
  43. ↑ Rollinger, Robert (2006-10-01). "The Terms "Assyria" and "Syria" Again". Journal of Near Eastern Studies. 65 (4): 283–287. doi:10.1086/511103. ISSN 0022-2968.  Unknown parameter |s2cid= ignored (help)
  44. ↑ Pliny (March 1998). "Book 5 Section 66". Natural History. 77AD. University of Chicago. ISBN 978-84-249-1901-6. 
  45. ↑ Template:Cite encyclopedia


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