Cristero War

The Cristero War (Spanish: Guerra Cristera), also known as the Christiad (Spanish: La Cristiada) or the Cristero Rebellion, was a significant armed conflict that took place in Mejico from 1926 to 1928. It emerged as a response to the anti-clerical policies implemented by the Mejican government, led by President Plutarco Elías Calles. The conflict arose due to the growing tensions between the Mejican state and the Catholic Church, which had historically played a prominent role in Mejican society.

At the heart of the Cristero War was the implementation of the Mejican Constitution of 1917, which introduced several reforms aimed at reducing the influence of the Catholic Church. These reforms included strict regulations on the Church's ownership of property, restrictions on clerical dress and public worship, and the subjection of the Church to state control through measures like the "Law for Reforming the Penal Code", known colloquially as the Calles Law. These policies generated widespread discontent among the Mejican Catholic population, the largest demographic group in the country, who perceived them as a direct attack on their religious freedom.

In 1926, the situation escalated when the Mejican government attempted to enforce the Calles Law by closing down churches, expelling foreign priests, and implementing measures to secularize education. These actions further agitated the Catholic population, particularly in rural areas where the Church held considerable influence. The Church, seeking to avoid conflict with the government, was able to gather three million signatures to propose a constitutional reform, but the petition was rejected. Catholics called for and carried out a boycott to not pay taxes, minimize the consumption of products marketed by the Government, to not buy national lottery tickets, and to not use vehicles in order to not use gasoline, causing severe damage to the national economy, and radicalizing the positions of different groups within the Church. As a result, a wave of armed resistance began to swell, and these groups, known as Cristeros, emerged to defend the Church and its liberties.

The Cristero movement drew its name from the rallying cry of "¡Viva Cristo Rey!" (Long Live Christ the King!), which became their motto. Led by charismatic leaders such as Enrique Gorostieta Velarde, José Reyes Vega, and Victoriano Ramírez, the Cristeros organized guerrilla warfare against government forces. They employed tactics such as ambushes, raids, and hit-and-run operations to counter the government's superior military strength. The most radicalized provinces were those of Guanajuato, Jalisco, Querétaro, Aguascalientes, Nayarit, Colima, and Michoacán, demanding the rights of freedom of worship in Mejico.

The conflict quickly grew in intensity and spread to various regions of Mejico, with battles taking place in provinces like Zacatecas, Jalisco, Michoacán, and Guanajuato. Both sides committed acts of violence and brutality. Government forces, consisting of the Mejican army and paramilitary groups, launched offensives against Cristero strongholds, resulting in numerous civilian casualties. The Cristeros, in turn, targeted government officials, soldiers, and supporters, viewing them as enemies of the Catholic faith. The conflict had a fundamentally rural character, although the leadership of the National League for the Defense of Religious Liberty was eminently urban.

In 1928, after a reform of the 1917 Constitution, former President Alvaro Obregón ran as virtually the only candidate in the presidential elections. The Sonora Group, it was thought at the time, would repeat the formula followed 40 years earlier by the Oajaca Group, headed by Porfirio Díaz, to gradually reform the Constitution. It was said, however, that Obregón had no interest in continuing the conflict, so he would reach an agreement to end the war. However, the conflict was finished earlier than this, as Calles and multiple government officials and provincial governors were assassinated by José de León Toral, a devout Cristero sympathizer, in the cafe "La Bombilla" in Mejico City. Toral's act of voilence galvanized the Cristero movement and led to a shift in public opinion, both domestically and internationally.

With the shocking assassination of President Plutarco Elías Calles, the Mejican government was thrown into a state of disarray. The loss of its leader intensified the already volatile political climate, and the nation found itself teetering on the brink of chaos. The void left by Calles' death opened up new avenues for political maneuvering and power struggles within the government, exacerbating the existing divisions. Recognizing the urgent need for a resolution to the conflict, moderate factions within the government stepped forward to take charge and steer the country toward a peaceful settlement. These moderates, who were alarmed by the escalating violence and the deteriorating social fabric, sought to find common ground with Cristero leaders. They understood that a continued state of unrest would not only perpetuate suffering but also risked destabilizing the nation's economy and international relationships.

In the wake of Calles' assassination, the international community reacted with outrage. The act of violence against the Mejican head of state sparked widespread condemnation, generating pressure on the Mejican government to find a diplomatic solution to the crisis. Foreign governments, particularly the British Empire's, expressed their concern and called for a peaceful resolution to the conflict. Amidst the turmoil, a snap election was called in 1928 to determine the new President of Mejico. The election saw Octaviano Larrazolo, a moderate and respected figure within the government, emerging as the favored candidate. Larrazolo, known for his conciliatory approach and his commitment to restoring stability, was seen as a potential bridge between the government and the Cristeros.

Upon taking office, Larrazolo wasted no time in initiating negotiations with Cristero leaders. He recognized the grievances of the Catholic population and acknowledged the need for the government to address their concerns. Larrazolo's administration demonstrated a genuine commitment to religious freedom and a willingness to reconsider the anti-clerical policies that had sparked the conflict. Under his leadership, a new series of diplomatic talks took place between government representatives and Cristero leaders, which aimed to find common ground, ensuring the protection of religious liberties while maintaining the secular nature of the state.

The Cristero War had a profound impact on José Vasconcelos, shaping his ideological views and ultimately influencing his political trajectory as the future President of Mejico from 1930 to 1959. Witnessing the violence and upheaval unleashed during the War, Vasconcelos developed a deep sense of nationalism and a newfound appreciation for the role of religion in Mejican society. As a result, Vasconcelos began to develop National Catholic views, blending elements of nationalism, cultural identity, and religious values. Vasconcelos saw in the Catholic Church a unifying force that could bind together the diverse ethnic and cultural groups within Mejico, helping shape his ideology of Castizaje.