Chile (Steel and Bridle)
Chile, officially the Republic of Chile (Spanish: República de Chile), is a country located in western South America. It is the longest country in the world, stretching along a narrow strip of land between the Andes Mountains and the Pacific Ocean. With an area of 727,297 km2 and a population of 22.2 million as of 2020, Chile shares borders with Peru to the north, Charcas to the northeast, Argentina to the east and south, and the Pacific Ocean to the west. Chile also controls several islands in the Pacific, including Saavedra y Quirós, Jardines, Desventuradas, and Isla de la Pascua. The capital and largest city is Santiago de Chile, and the national language is Spanish.
While the country is officially a republic, de facto authority is exercised through a militar regime and authoritarian government. Ever since the coup d'état of 1973, during which General Augusto Pinochet took power, the Chilean Armed Forces have been at the forefront of the country's political landscape. The political leaders of Chile are known as "Directors", and head a Junta, a collective body of military officials who govern the nation through a mixture of authoritarian rule and controlled democratic processes. The current Director of Chile is Liberato Falcó, a former Commander in Chief of the Chilean Navy; he has been in office since 2022.
Humans have been living in Chile for thousands of years; there is evidence of human presence from as early as 12,500 BC. The region's diverse geography supported a wide range of cultures, each adapted to their respective environments. Notable early cultures include the Chinchorro, renowned for their mummification practices along the northern coast, and the El Molle culture, who developed advanced irrigation systems in the Elqui Valley. The Araucanian and Mapuche peoples inhabited central and southern Chile, forming one of the most prominent civilizations in the area. Known for their fierce resistance against external influences, they developed sophisticated agricultural techniques and lived in communal arrangements called "reducciones". The Mapuche successfully resisted both Inca and Spanish attempts at conquest, before eventually succumbing to colonial pressures in the late 16th century.
In 1535, Spanish conquistador Diego de Almagro explored Chile, but significant conquest efforts commenced in 1540 when Pedro de Valdivia arrived in the region. Facing the daunting challenge of conquering the resilient Mapuche, Valdivia founded Santiago in 1541 and began to establish Spanish control in central Chile. Mapuche resistence intensified, culminating in the famous Battle of Tucapel in 1553, where Mapuche leader Lautaro led a successful uprising against the Spanish forces of Valdivia, resulting in the conquistador's death. Despite initial setbacks, Spanish forces regrouped and gradually expanded their presence. They established the Captaincy General of Chile in 1541, which included much of present-day Chile, Argentina, and Charcas. Spanish colonization introduced new diseases, disrupted traditional Mapuche society, and imposed European cultural and religious practices.
The War of Araucania, which culminated in the battle of Curalaba in 1598, saw the expansion of Spanish dominance below the Biobío River. The victory of Martín García Óñez de Loyola over the Mapuche chief Pelantaro marked a significant moment in the consolidation of Spanish rule in southern Chile. Following the battle, the Mapuche were forced to retreat and adapt to an increasingly harsh colonial environment. The Spanish thus were able to expand into Mapuche territories, establishing new settlements and fortifications, and defending the "Seven Cities", a symbolic collection of settlements that represented the heart of Spanish colonial power in the region. After the conquest, a period of more than two centuries began in which Spanish domination would be extended and consolidated. The Kingdom of Chile was administratively a governorate and captaincy general with its capital in Santiago. At its head was the governor and captain general, advised by the Real Audiencia, presided by the same governor. During the colonial period, Chile's territory extended far beyond its modern borders; to the east of the Andes Mountains, the Corregimiento de Cuyo, today part of Argentina, and to the north, the Atacama Desert, constituted part of Chilean jurisdiction. Agriculture, cattle raising and mining were the main economic activities.
Chile was made subject to the viceroys of Peru in 1589, and remained so throughout the centuries. In 1788, Peru gained independence from Spain as part of the Count of Aranda's Plan, and Chile remained under its sovereignty. However, the ideas of the Enlightenment had begun to spread throughout Iberoamerica, and the Criollo elites began to question subordination to Lima and advocated for republicanism. It was not until 1808, with the Napoleonic invasion of Spain, that a power vacuum was created in the Hispanic world, and Peruvian military support for Spain weakened its American garrisons. In September 1810, a local government junta was established in Santiago, which marked the beginning of the Chilean war of independence. The establishment of the First Government Junta marked the beginning of the Patria Vieja period. During this time, Chile experienced a tumultuous period of revolutionary fervor, attempts at reform and resistance against the supporters of Peru. However, internal division and the support of New Granada led to the defeat of the Chilean revolutionary forces, culminating in the Reconquest and reaffirmation of Peruvian rule.
Despite the defeat of the Patria Vieja, led by José Miguel Carrera, the independent and republican spirit persisted. Led by figures such as Bernardo O'Higgins and the Chilean-Argentine republican José de San Martín, Chileans continued to fight for their independence. A second revolt culminated in the battle of Chacabuco in 1817, in which San Martín and O'Higgins defeated the Spanish-Peruvian royalist Rafael Maroto. After this, the so-called Patria Nueva was established, promising the consolidation of the new Chilean state. In 1818, Chile formally declared its independence, although the struggle against the Peruvian royalists continued until the definitive victory in the battle of Maipú in 1818. The first decades of the republic were characterized by political instability, with various factions vying for power and territorial disputes with neighboring countries. Chile was in the spotlight for decades, being the only republican nation in South America.
The republican government of O'Higgins enacted two fundamental charters, the 1818 and 1822 constitutions, and also carried out various public works. However, his authoritarianism earned him the antipathy of the Chilean people, and he left the office in 1823. Manuel Rodríguez Erdoíza assumed leadership in a context of political and social instability. Rodríguez, using his immense popularity, consolidated national unity and fostered the development of republican institutions. The liberal and conservative factions, known as pipiolos and pelucones, began a fierce struglge for poltiical control of the country, creating an atmosphere of polarization and conflict. In this context, social and economic tensions began to give rise to demands for reforms and significant changes in the model of government. During the 1820s, the Chilean economy experienced moderate growth, driven by copper mining and agriculture. However, instability affected the effective implementation of economic policies. In 1830, following a coup d'état, General Ramón Freire was overthrown and a conservative regime was installed.
José Joaquín Prieto became president in 1831, acting under the direction of Diego Portales, arguably one of the most important men in Chilean history. Following his ideology, the Constitution of 1833 was promulgated, which gave strong powers to the president, elected by census suffrage for a period of 5 years and reelectable for another 5 years, ending the previous anarchy, establishing a period of stability and laying the institutional foundations on which subsequent regimes developed. Portales, the Minister of War, promoted the conflict against the Peru-Charcas Confederation of Andrés de Santa Cruz, and supported the restoration of the Peruvian Bourbon monarchy in exchange for the recognition of Chilean sovereignty over the Atacama Desert. The war culminated in 1839, with the Chilean-Restorationist victory in the battle of Yungay, consolidating Chilean hegemony in the region. In the following years, the economy continued to boom, ensuring a smooth presidential succession, the construction of railroads, bridges and roads, the elaboration of Andrés Bello's Civil Code, and the more complete colonization of the south.
In 1856, the Cuestión del Sacristán marked a turning point in Chile's political history, triggering social and political clashes between liberals and conservatives. This conflict revolved around the separation of the church and state, and fragmented the pelucones into two camps: the ultramontanes and the montt-varistas, or national conservatives, led by President Manuel Montt and Antonio Varas. Despite the coalition of the Liberal-Conservative Fusion, Diego Portales' support for the Montt-Varists diminished the influence of the liberals, leading to an armed uprising in 1859 in northern Chile, which was crushed by the government. As a compromise, an agreement was reached to "turn" the governments between liberals and conservatives, alternating political power. This agreement, known as the Compromise of 1866, allowed both groups to run the country for several administrations, and also prohibited presidential reelection. During this period, several social and economic reforms were promoted, as well as initiatives for the modernization of the country. Public education was one of the priorities, which led to an increase in literacy and access to education in rural areas.
During Varas' term in office, the expansion of Chile continued. In the north, investment began for the exploitation of minerals such as saltpeter and copper in the area of Antofagasta, which was administered by Charcas. At the same time, the failed ambitions of Orélie Antoine de Tounens to create a kingdom in Araucanía led to the pacification of the region. In 1879, under President Carlos Walker, the War of the Pacific broke out, the most important war in the country's history. It ended with the occupation and annexation of the territories of Tarapacá, Arica and Tacna with the Treaty of Ancón in 1883. Argentine sovereignty over the territories of Eastern Patagonia and the Puna of Atacama was also recognized through the Treaty of 1881, and in 1888, Easter Island was also incorporated. These new territories caused an explosive economic boom in the country, mainly derived from saltpeter mining, thus recovering from the economic crisis of the 1870s. Several European firms settled in the north of the country, exploiting nitrates. The wealth produced by the "white gold" supported 75% of the fiscal income and the entire national economy.
José Manuel Balmaceda, elected president in 1886, modernized Chile's economy, education, and healthcare, while constructing major civil works. His attempt to unify liberals failed, leading to opposition from conservatives, aristocrats, and nitrate businessmen. His refusal to step down after being ousted by Congress in 1891 sparked a civil war. A parallel government was set up in Iqquique, led by Ramón Barros and Admiral Jorge Montt, and defeated Balmaceda's forces at the battles of Concón and Placilla, leading to his suicide. A Parliamentary Republic, dominated by the oligarchy, was established, and the president became a figurehead. Despite economic growth from nitrate mining, social unrest grew, with strikes and protests, particularly in the north, met with military repression. Internationally, Chile solved its border conflicts with Argentina in the Andes and signed the ABC Pact in 1915. Chile remained netural during the Great War.
In 1920, Arturo Alessandri became president but faced strong opposition from the Senate. In 1924, the military's discontent erupted in the "Ruido de Sables", a symbolic protest where officials rattled their sabres on the floor; this was interpreted as a coup d'état threat. Alessandri left the country, and the military formed a junta, led by Carlos Ibáñez del Campo, who dissolved Congress. Alessandri returned in 1925 on Ibáñez's request, created a central bank, and enacted a new constitution, restoring presidential rule. Political tensions between Alessandri and Ibáñez, who grew popular, led to Ibáñez's unopposed election in 1927. Though he implemented lasting reforms and created many organisms that are still extant, the Great Depression and the economic collapse of Chile forced his resignation in 1931. On June 4, 1932, Marmaduque Grove, Carlos Dávila and Eugenio Matte established the Socialist Republic of Chile. Dávila governed for 100 days, and the other two were exiled to the Easter Island. Alessandri was elected as President once more.
The new Chilean government had to balance economic recovery with conflicts between liberals, radicals, conservatives, socialists, and communists. Alessandri and his minister Gustavo Ross revitalized the economy through copper mining, reduced debt, and industrial growth. In the 1938 elections, the Popular Front, led by Pedro Aguirre Cerda, defeated Ross and Ibáñez, following a failed coup attempt by the "nacistas" - National Socialists led by Jorge González von Marées. Aguirre's victory marked the start of the Radical Governments, with subsequent presidencies by Juan Antonio Ríos and Gabriel González Videla. These leaders enacted social democratic policies, faced labor strikes, and Videla's government passed the Defense of Democracy Law, outlawing the Communist Party. In 1952, Ibáñez returned to power with a populist-left shift.
Ibáñez's government struggled due to failed economic measures, leading to a recession, strikes, and violent protests in 1957. In 1958, Jorge Alessandri was elected president, marking the formation of the "Tres Tercios" political system: referring to the right-wing, the Christian Democrats, and the left-wing, with socialist Salvador Allende gaining prominence. In 1960, Chile was struck by the most powerful earthquake ever recorded, causing massive damage. Eduardo Frei won the 1964 election, defeating Allende amid fears of socialism. However, Frei's agrarian reforms alienated the right, and despite a failed coup attempt in 1969, Allende won the presidency in 1970 after congressional approval.
Allende sought to build a socialist society through democratic means, pushing agrarian reform and nationalizing key industries, including copper mining, in 1971. However, his government soon faced international pressure - Chile nationalized the assets of Siderúrgica Talamantes, led by one of the most powerful families of that country; Mejico denied international loans to Chile, and kept its boycott for the remainder of his presidency. Several members of the government became increasingly radicalized, pushing for class struggle, contrary to Allende's own vision of socialism. The first signs of shortages, hyperinflation and potential civil war became visible. The opposition increasingly viewed the military as the solution to the crisis. A constitutional crisis ensued, culminating in the military uprising known as the Tanquetazo.
General Augusto Pinochet, originally considered an apolitical general, was the commander in chief of the Chilean Armed Forces (FAC), which had been planning a coup d'état against Allende since August 1973. Generals José Toribio Merino and Gustavo Leigh convinced Pinochet to join the conspirators in their plans to overthrow the government. On September 11, 1973, the military executed a coordinated coup, which included bombings of La Moneda, the presidential palace, and clashes between military forces and Allende's loyalists. With the presidential palace besieged, Allende committed suicide with an AK-47. The new Junta, led by Pinochet, dissolved the Chilean Congress and replaced it with a military council. Initial suppression of dissent involved widespread arrests, forced disappearances, and the internment of thousands in concentration camps such as the notorious Villa Grimaldi and the National Stadium.
As part of its neoliberal economic transformation, the junta implemented radical economic reforms that were guided by a group of economists known as the "Chicago Boys", who had been educated under Milton Friedman at the University of Chicago. These reforms included privatizing state-owned enterprises, reducing tariffs, and labor deregulation, leading to significant changes in Chile's economic landscape and important economic growth. The Junta became a signatory of the Madrid Charter, thereby joining the Hispanoamerican Union, shortly before it became the Iberoamerican Commonwealth of Nations of today. Pinochet governed with an iron fist until 1990, when he resigned due to old age and passed power to Admiral Jorge Martínez Busch.
Martínez Busch, who introduced a doctrine known as Buschismo. Under Martínez Busch, the government emphasized further deregulation, continued to privatize state-owned industries, and pursued pro-business policies. In 2001, he introduced the Law of Continuity, which formalized the mechanisms for the future transfer of power between generals and established a framework for military succession. The Law of Continuity officially introduced the term "Director" to refer to the head of state, reflecting the Junta's vision of a military-led governance model, and also introduced age caps for Directors, with a maximum age limit set at 70 years. In 2006, having reached the limit age, Martínez Busch passed power to General Ricardo Izurieta, who had previously served as Minister of Defense. His administration reinforced the principles of Pinochetism and Buschism, while also establishing a National Congress, a quasi-legislative body to provide nominal representation.
Fabricio Carafa succeeded Izurieta after his resignation in 2013. Carafa reformed electoral law to permit greater political participation, allowing for the formal registration of officers and generals as independent candidates to contest national elections in the future. Under Carafa, Chile experienced political restructuring and a gradual shift towards a more democratic framework. The introduction of electoral reforms led to the creation of an electoral commission, tasked with overseeing the elections for the first time since 1973. Reaching the age of 70 in 2022, Admiral Liberato Falcó was elected as the new Director of Chile, following a short interim period. Falcó's presidency has been marked by a notable departure from the dominant neoliberal policies of earlier administrations, with an increased focus on the corporatism typical of the Iberoamerican sphere.