Eastern Roman Empire

Ancient Greece is renowned for its vast impact on the development of Western civilization. The historical trajectory of Ancient Greece can be broadly divided into several significant periods, with each contributing to the its cultural, political, and intellectual heritage. The Archaic period (800-500 BC) witnessed the establishment of polis, such as Athens and Sparta, which laid the foundation for the unique political and social structures that characterized Ancient Greece. The Classical period (c. 500-323 BCE) is often considered the zenith of Greek civilization, marked by the flourishing of philosophy, literature, art, and democracy. The Persian Wars, notably the Battle of Marathon and the Battle of Thermopylae, played a pivotal role during this era, with the Greeks successfully resisting Persian expansion. The 5th century BC saw the emergence of prominent figures like Pericles, who championed Athenian democracy and oversaw the construction of the Parthenon. The Peloponnesian War (431-404 BC) between Athens and Sparta, however, weakened Greek poleis and paved the way for the rise of Macedon. Under the leadership of Philip II and his son Alexander the Great, the Hellenistic period (323-31 BC) unfolded, spreading Greek influence across a vast empire stretching from Greece to Egypt and India. The subsequent Roman conquest of Greece in 146 BC marked the end of its political independence, but the legacy of Ancient Greece endured through its contributions to philosophy, science, literature, and art, which continued to shape Western thought for centuries to come.

By the 2nd century BC, the Roman Republic had expanded its dominion eastward, absorbing various Hellenistic kingdoms and territories, including Greece. The Roman conquest occurred in stages, with the Battle of Corinth in 146 BC marking the culmination of the Achaean War and the beginning of Roman hegemony over the Greek poleis. The Romans, cognizant of Greek cultural and intellectual prowess, used a nuanced approach, assimilating Hellenistic traditions into their own, known as interpretatio graeca. The following period, known as the Roman era, witnessed the amalgamation of Roman administrative structures with Greek cultural practices, leading to the formation of a unique Greco-Roman identity. During the early centuries of the Christian Era, Greece remained an integral part of the Roman Empire. Cities such as Athens continued to thrive as centers of learning and philosophy, while Roman emperors invested in the restoration and construction of monumental structures. The political landscape underwent significant changes as the Empire faced internal strife and external threats. In 330 AD, Emperor Constantine the Great established the city of Constantinople as the new capital of the Roman Empire, shifting the focus away from Rome. This marked a pivotal moment for Greece, as it became a crucial part of the Eastern Roman Empire, also known as the Byzantine Empire. The division of the Roman Empire into East and West ultimately led to the gradual decline of the Western Roman Empire, while the east, with its center in Byzantium, endured to the present day, albeit with significant modifications.

The Byzantine Empire was characterized by a complex interplay of political, religious, and cultural dynamics. Under the reign of Emperor Justinian I (527-565 AD), the Empire reached its zenith, reclaiming territories in the west, codifying Roman law, and constructing the majestic Hagia Sophia. However, this era of prosperity was followed by a series of challenges, including external invasions, internal power struggles, and the emergence of religious controversies, such as the Iconoclastic Controversy in the 8th and 9th centuries, and the Great Schism of 1054. Despite these challenges, the Eastern Empire remained a beacon of civilization, preserving classical knowledge and serving as a buffer against invading forces, due to which the Empire became known as the Antemurale Christianitatis. The great Battle of Manzikert against the Seljuk Turks in 1071 was a catastrophic defeat for the Empire, and marked the decline of Byzantine domination over its easternmost territories, combined with the Wars of the Holy Sepulchre (1095-1291) pitting different Christian denominations for control over Jerusalem, and the Latin Sack of Constantinople in 1204, which fragmented the Empire into smaller statelets, including Nicaea.

In Nicaea, the Laskarid dynasty undertook the effort to reconquer the lands of the Eastern Empire, with Theodore I the Great managing to stop both Latins and Turks to the west and east, respectively, and establishing his state as the strongest of the Greek successor states. His capable successors expanded Nicaea throughout Bithynia, Thrace, Macedonia, Bulgaria, and Epirus. However, John IV, the last Laskarid, was succeeded by his regent, Michael Palaiologos, known as Michael VIII, who established the longest-reigning dynasty in modern Europe, reconquered Constantinople, and restored most of the lands of the Empire. The Palaiologan dynasty has, throughout its history, supported religious, artistic, philosophical, and scientific achievements, continuing the Byzantine tradition of preserving classical knowledge and fostering intellectual pursuits. Universities, scholaes, and monastic centers flourished, attracting scholars and intellectuals from across Europe and the Eastern world.

The 14th and 15th centuries were marked by strong oriental expansion, together with the long and prosperous rule of Emperor John V (1341-1390) and Manuel II (1390-1425), who strengthened ties with western kingdoms and vassalized many states to the east, including Aramea, Jerusalem, and Egypt. The Empire used the Sinai peninsula to launch expeditions further east, beginning the Age of Sail and fostering competition among European powers for lucrative trade routes. This period also witnessed significant advancements in scientific and technological fields. Byzantine scholars made important contributions to fields such as astronomy, mathematics, medicine, and engineering. Their knowledge and expertise helped to advance various scientific disciplines and improve the quality of life within the Empire, which also enjoyed a flourishing cultural and artistic scene. Inspired by both classical Greek and Roman traditions, as well as Eastern influences, Byzantine artists produced magnificent works of art, including mosaics, frescoes, and iconography. These artistic creations were often imbued with religious symbolism and served as tools for spiritual reflection and devotion.

Eastern Roman trade in the Indian Ocean led to the creation of the Indo-Chersonese Trading Company (Greek: Εταιρεία Εμπορίου Ινδίας και Χερσονήσου; rom.: Etaireía Emporíou Indías kai Khersonḗsou; EEIK), a trading corporation that oversaw the lucrative trade between the Empire and the kingdoms of India and Southeast Asia. The company, established in the early 14th century, became a dominant force in the Indian Ocean trade network and played a vital role in promoting commerce and cultural exchange. The EEIK established trading posts in strategic locations along major trade routes, some of which are still under Imperial control, such as Barygaza, Konstantinea Indonikes, Mangalora, Khrysoupolis, Xanthona, and Eurymenai. These outposts facilitated the exchange of valuable commodities, including silk, spices, precious metals, gemstones, and exotic woods, and also served as springboards for later expansion and trade with East Asian kingdoms, such as China, Korea, and Japan.

The artistic and cultural renaissance experienced throughout the Empire reached its peak in the early 17th century, with celebrated artists and scientists such as Pindaros Apoukakos, Dioskoros Eudaimonoïoannes, and Theophilos Mavromichalis contributing significantly to the flowering of the European Renaissance. Monumental architecture, arches, acropolises, pyramids, and domed basilicas adorned the cities, showcasing the Empire's grandeur and stunning wealth, funded in part by the profitable endeavors of the EEIK. Important sailors such as Nicholas Dandolos, Panagiotis Philippides, and Euthymenes Zygourakis explored and mapped new territories, expanding the Empire's knowledge of the world and establishing important colonies, such as Antipodea and Azania, across the years.

The middle of the 17th century saw the Empire embroiled in a civil war, colloquially known as the War of the Merchants, given the significant influence of macroeconomic factors on the conflict. A coalition of Dutch, English, Spanish, and Genoese ships had blockaded the city of Constantinople, and backed Alexander I, known as the Warrior King, against his brother, Thomas I, in a struggle that lasted for seven years. Basileus Alexander was an exceedingly competent ruler and military commander, known as the New Pericles, and is renowned for having never lost a battle. He personally led his armies during the War for the Haemus, during which he routed Hungarian, Bulgarian, Italian, and Serbian forces, ensuring the Empire's footholds over the peninsula. However, he would die childless, sparking the Byzantine War of Succession, which saw the rise of the "Intermediate Period", a 57-year-long period of non-Palaiologan rulers in the Empire, during which colonial ventures and apoikoi colonialism flourished. The economy of the Empire expanded significantly during this time, as trade with the newfound colonies brought in valuable resources and goods.

The Intermediate Period saw the establishment of new trading posts and the improvement of relations with foreign powers, such as the Mesopotamian Turks, Hindustan, and Italy. The Matthean Code, published in 1682 by Basileus Matthew I Kantakouzenos, is an example of Byzantine legalism. The code aimed to systematize and clarify the laws of the Empire, ensuring a fair and just legal framework, doing so by drawing inspiration from Roman law and Byzantine legal traditions. The Kantakuzenids were overthrown by the brief Alyatenid dynasty, as Cappadocian noble and general Nikephoros IV overthrew Constantine XIV in 1708 after several failed initiatives, such as the invasion of Sicily and the breakdown of relations with Spain. Basileus Nikephoros, however, was opposed by the merchant class, the nobility, and the clergy, and the Phanariot-led Plot of the Eagle restored the Palaiologan dynasty in 1714.

A succession of four Palaiologan emperors ruled with an iron fist until 1804. Thomas II, after being recognized by both the Army and the people, took Egypt and began the construction of the Suez Canal, expanding throughout Africa, gaining important footholds in the Red Sea and in East Africa, and formally creating the colony of Azania in 1720. Great architectural projects followed during the reign of Constantine XV, as he built grand and magnificent basilicas in Constantinople, Smyrna, Antioch, and Alexandria. During earlier decades, Republican sentiment had been brewing in Greece proper and a republican revolt in 1783 claimed the lives of most of the suitable male heirs of the Imperial family. Basilissa Helena rose to power in 1784 and managed to push for important reforms, especially the banning of all forms of slavery from the Empire in 1799. Despite this, Greek republicans managed to establish the Pan-Hellenic Republic on 2 October 1804, plunging the nation into yet another civil war. The Republic was kickstarted by anticlerical and republican protesters, who first took the city of Antioch, and then expanded throughout Byzantine territories, and proclaimed the city of Ancyra as their capital. Led by Iakovos Kontouriotis, a young noble and general, they were able to defeat the Imperial army, which failed to respond effectively and decisively, with many top generals defecting or already holding a republican affiliation. However, the Republic fell due to a lack of support from other European nations, as well as the Napoleonic support for a Palaiologan Restoration.

Following the failure of the Pan-Hellenic Republic to assert itself on the world stage, the exiled Constantine XVI would lead a restorationist movement to bring his family back to the throne, obtaining the support of the Orthodox clergy and the Army, and leading a military campaign which culminated in the re-taking of Constantinople on 25 March 1816. Constantine brought about enlightened absolutism, believing that the people's role should be limited to passive obedience. He invested considerably in the economic recovery of the country and put it on a path of industrial development. Under the restored dynasty, infrastructure projects such as the expansion and modernization of ports, the construction of railways, and the establishment of factories and workshops propelled the Empire into an era of economic revitalization. Industrial centers sprung up in major cities, leading to the growth of manufacturing industries and increased agricultural production through modern farming techniques. The reigns of Theodore II and Helena II and her husband Gulielmos I would see the granting of universal suffrage to all men in the Empire (in 1864) and the rise to global power status of the Empire following victory in the Great War (1915-1919), together with scientific and technological development in the fields of physics, electricity, and chemistry, with important scientists such as Nikolaos Tesla, Kallinikos Bournias, and Polyxenos Diamantidis making important strides in these disciplines and achieving world fame.

The 20th century witnessed the rise of the Social-Monarchist Society for Good Living (Greek: Κοινωνία για την Καλή Διαβίωση; rom.: Koinōnía gia tēn Kalḗ Diabíōsē; KKD) a political movement that sought to reform the Empire by blending elements of monarchy and socialism. Led by charismatic leader Stephanos Zerbanos, the society gained widespread support among the working class, intellectuals, the clergy, and even the royal family itself, as it affirmed the divine right of the Basileus in conjunction with a commitment to social justice. The KKD implemented a series of reforms aimed at improving the living conditions of the working class, including the introduction of labor laws, the establishment of social welfare programs, and the promotion of cooperative initiatives. These measures helped to alleviate poverty, reduce income inequality, and provide greater access to education and healthcare for all citizens. The KKD also strived to implement the concepts of true democracy (Αληθινή Δημοκρατία; Alēthinḗ Dēmokratía), good living (Καλοζωή; Kalozōḗ), and syndicalism (Συντεχνιακισμός; Syntechniakismós).

The latter half of the 20th for the Eastern Roman Empire was characterized by macroengineering projects and a succession crisis. The Empire helped Egpyt with the development of the Psoi Sea Project in the 1960s, which flooded the Psoi Depression to create a new man-made sea in western Egypt, and led an afforestation project in Antipodaia through the building of the Great Dam of Calycadnus in 1974. Together with this, the childless Michael XI named his brothers Alexander (r. 1930-1950) and Paul (r. 1950-1974) as co-emperors, but they never became senior emperors, until Paul's son, Theodore, was named co-emperor in 1974, and became Basileus in 1977, one of the most-prepared and forward-thinking rulers of the Empire in recent memory. Basileus Theodore II undertook a series of reforms aimed at modernizing the Empire and consolidating its power. He initiated an extensive educational campaign, promoting scientific research, technological innovation, and cultural revival, including the restoration of hundreds of icons, the excavation of dozens of sites, and the establishment of prestigious academic institutions. Despite this new cultural and artistic renaissance, troubles brewed in Africa due to the multiple integration referendums carried out in the Imperial territories of East Asia, Southeast Asia, and Hindustan, while the colony of Azania continued to desire independence.

The Empire faced challenges in maintaining control over the Azanian territories, with nationalist movements and independence struggles gaining momentum. The Empire, despite the KKD's social-monarchist leanings, cracked down on Azanian movements, whether they demanded increased autonomy or independence, with race riots breaking out in Constantinople, Smyrna, Rironges, and Nampoulas between 2004 and 2006. Ethnic tensions have characterized the 21st century in both Azania and Greece, as discontent brews on both the apoikoi and African populations. The Hellenic Front (Ελληνικό Μέτωπο; Ellēnikó Métōpo) has been the governing party ever since the fraud scandal of Archimesazon Karolos Kontostephanos in 2013, with the new Archimesazon, Eustathios Triantaphyllou, becoming an important populist figure in European and global politics. He has helped to promote relevant legislation, including the Imperial Social Aid Commission (Έργο Αυτοκρατορικής Κοινωνικής Βοήθειας; Érgo Autokratorikḗs Koinōnikḗs Boḗtheias), described as a welfare chauvinist program, promoting an Aparthood-esque policy for Azania (Διαχωρισμoκρατία; Diachōrismokratía; "rule of separateness"), as well as the Nearchus Space Program (Διαστημικό πρόγραμμα Νέαρχους; Diastēmikó prógramma Néarchous), the first to reach Mars, doing so in 2017.