Italy (Steel and Bridle)
Italy (Italian: Italia), officially the United Principalities of Italy (Italian: Principati Uniti d'Italia), is a multicontinental country consisting of a peninsula delimited by the Alps surrounded by several islands in Europe, and multiple enclaves in Africa, Hindustan, and Greater China. Metropolitan Italy is located in south-central Europe and is considered part of Western Europe. As a union with several monarchical member states, Italy has its capital at Aurora Augusta. The country covers a total area of 360,230 km2 and shares land borders with France, Switzerland, Germany, Yugoslavia, Ethiopia, Hellenic Erythrea, Somalia, New Israel, Hindustan, and Wu China. With around 89.9 million inhabitants, Italy is the 5th-most populous member state of the European Confederation.
Italy has a long history dating back more than 40,000 years, with ancient Indo-European Italic peoples like the Umbrians, Latins, Samnites, and Celts, and foreign colonists like the Phoenicians and Greeks. Rome, founded in 753 BC, evolved from a kingdom into a republic, consolidating Italy into a vast empire under leaders like Julius Caesar and Augustus, who turned Rome into a massive empire that engulfed the Mediterranean basin. The Roman Empire's stability lasted two centuries, during which Christianity spread, making Rome the Catholic Church's seat. After the Western Roman Empire fell, Italy faced Germanic rule first led by Odoacer, a Byzantine reconquest led by Emperor Justinian, and later on, a Lombard invasion, leading to political disunity in the region, beginning the period known as the Dark Ages. Charlemagne's Frankish Empire included the Kingdom of Italy, establishing the Papal States through the Donation of Pepin. From the 10th to the 13th century, the Holy Roman Emperors and the Papacy held significant influence over Italian politics, with conflicts like the Investiture Controversy and the clash between the Guelphs and Ghibellines. Northern Italy's city-states gained independence following the Lombard League's victory over Emperor Frederick Barbarossa in 1176.
City-states like Milan, Florence, and Venice were pivotal in financial development and innovation, particularly in banking. Maritime republics such as Venice, Genoa, Pisa, and Amalfi dominated Mediterranean trade, controlling trade routes to the East. Florence thrived in the silk, wool, banking, and jewelry industries, funding large artistic projects. These economic developments led to a commercial and cultural revolution, marked by Marco Polo's journey to Asia and the rise of universities and scholars like Thomas Aquinas. Italy also flourished politically and culturally under Frederick I of Sicily, with prominent banking families in Florence. The Black Death of 1348 significantly impacted Italy. During the 15th and 16th centuries, Italy became the epicenter of the Renaissance, marking the shift from the medieval era to the modern age. Wealthy merchant cities, influential political dynasties like the Medici, Visconti, and Sforza families, and the Catholic Church's patronage fueled the emergence of this era. The return of Pope Martin V to the Papal States after the Western Schism, along with ties between the Church and political dynasties, solidified Italy's role in Western Christianity. The Medici Bank's appointment as the Papacy's official credit institution and the reconciliation agreement between the Catholic and Orthodox Churches at the Council of Florence in 1439 were significant developments.
This period also saw the cultural, philosophical, and economic influence of the Byzantine Empire leading to the rediscovery of Greco-Roman Humanism and the onset of the Age of Discovery. Italian explorers and navigators, seeking alternative routes to the Indies, played a crucial role in initiating the Age of Discovery and European colonialism. Figures like Christopher Columbus, John Cabot, Americo Vespucci, and Giovanni da Verrazzano served Spain, England, and France. The Wars in Lombardy concluded with the formation of the defensive Italic League among Venice, Naples, Florence, Milan, and the Papacy, supported by Lorenzo de Medici, thwarting Byzantine attempts to reconquer the peninsula. French campaigns, however, ended the League, leading to the Italian Wars between the Valois and the Habsburgs, as Italy was a battleground during the High Renaissance. Popes mediated conflicts, engaged in power struggles, and addressed the Protestant Reformation through the Counter-Reformation. By 1559, northern Italian states remained part of the Holy Roman Empire, while southern Italy and Milan fell under Spanish rule. The period also witnessed significant events such as the Council of Trent, the excommunication of Elizabeth I, the Battle of Lepanto, the Gregorian Observatory's construction, the adoption of the Gregorian Calendar, Chinese Missions, French Wars of Religion, the birth of the Lyncean Academy, the Thirty Years' War's final phases, and the formation of the Holy League in Italy during the 16th and 17th centuries.
The Italian economy declined in the 17th and 18th centuries, with the North falling under Austrian Habsburg influence and the South under the Spanish Bourbons after the European Wars of Succession. Napoleon reorganized northern and central Italy into French-controlled republics and later the Kingdom of Italy, while the South was governed by Joachim Murat, who was crowned King of Naples. Post-Napoleon, the Congress of Vienna in 1815 sought to restore pre-Napoleonic conditions, but Italian patriotism and secret revolutionary societies like the Carbonari pushed for unification. Proposals for a decentralized Italy emerged, suggesting a United Principalities of Italy to counterbalance French interests. The Papal States retained sovereignty but joined the Confederation for foreign policy and defense. The Kingdom of Naples initially resisted but joined under diplomatic pressure, being granted significant autonomy. The UPI, formed in 1843, included the Kingdom of Lombardy-Venetia, Republic of Genoa, Duchy of Parma, Duchy of Modena, Papal States, and the Kingdom of Naples, with limited central power and most authority remaining with individual states. The UPI was overseen by a Diet, settled in the city of Modena in 1843.
Italy's first international venture was participating in the Rhenish War and later the Scramble for Africa in the late 19th century. Despite lacking centralization, Italy pursued colonial acquisitions, with Lombardy-Venetia establishing a protectorate over Hobyo in 1873 and controlling Mogadiscio by 1885. By the 20th century, Italy held significant territories in East Africa, including Mogadiscio and Asmara. Genoa acquired Chisimaio, and Naples established a foothold in Asmara, collectively forming Italian East Africa, which enhanced Italy's trade routes and resource access. Italian colonization efforts included infrastructure development and trade networks, incentivizing Italian settlers with land and economic opportunities. In the late 19th century, the Fasci movement, advocating for a central government and elective monarchy, emerged in Sicily. After negotiations and threats of revolt, the Diet was reformed, establishing the office of Cancelliere and a constitutional, elective, rotative monarchy. Francesco Crispi became the first Cancelliere in 1887, and Alfonso II of Naples was elected the first King of Italy. This system ensured each major state in the confederation could provide the monarch, promoting unity. Under this government, Italy consolidated its East African colonies, investing in infrastructure, agriculture, and education, spreading Italian culture and language among the local population.
Cancelliere Giovanni Giolitti's intermittent governance from 1903 to 1921 marked a period of substantial social and economic reforms in Italy. Giolitti prioritized modernization, implementing policies to enhance social welfare, labor rights, and public infrastructure while overseeing a surge in industrialization, elevating Italy to a significant European manufacturing power. His alliance with the Byzantine Empire led to a declaration of war on Iran in 1911, aiming to secure strategic territories in Somalia and maintain Italian dominance in East Africa. However, the War for the Horn resulted in a stalemate, causing discontent and protests against Giolitti's government, eventually leading to Antonio Salandra's rise. Italy entered the Great War in February 1915, aligning with the Consortium of Nations, primarily driven by irredentism and dissatisfaction with the Horn of Africa's situation. Under Cancilliere Salandra and King Leopold III of Tuscany, Italy sought territorial gains in the Adriatic region inhabited by Italians but controlled by the Imperial League. The war claimed around 650,000 Italian lives, with millions of civilians emigrating to the Americas, yet Italy gained substantial territories including Trentino, Tyrol, Trieste, parts of Istria, and Ragusa, as outlined in the Treaty of Bucoleon in 1919. Despite these victories, a Socialist revolution rocked Italy immediately afterwards, known as the Biennio Rosso. Inspired by the Bolshevik revolution in Russia, Italian socialists took to the streets demanding radical change. The Socialist Party gained significant support among the working class and rural peasants, who pushed for nationalization of industries, land reform, and worker control of factories. The government initially resorted to repressive measures but, when faced with the strength of the movement, it reluctantly agreed to negotiate with the Socialists, known as the Red Accord.
In response, Agostino Mussolini, leader of the Fasci di Combattimento, orchestrated the March on Modena in October 1922, interrupting Socialist negotiations with the Italian government to pressure Cancilliere Salandra and King Pierluigi V of Parma to hand over power to the Fascists. Fearing chaos, they granted Mussolini the role of Cancilliere, leading to Italy's transformation into a fascist state under the Grand Council of Fascism, which centralized power, suppressed opposition, and promoted nationalism. Inspired by the Roman Empire, Mussolini's regime imposed censorship, indoctrination, and a cult of personality. Policies aimed at economic self-sufficiency included public works projects, corporatism, and autarky strategies. Mussolini's influence extended globally, inspiring authoritarian leaders like José Vasconcelos, Adolf Hitler, and Stephanos Zerbanos. Italy underwent a period of industrialization and modernization; the government launched ambitious infrastructure projects, such as the construction of the Autostrade, or highway system, and the draining of the Pontine Marshes after the signing of the Lateran Pact. Through this pact, Mussolini reached an accord with the Papal States to fully respect its sovereignty in perpetuity, in exchange for a concession of land, where Mussolini had planned, and built, the city of Aurora Augusta, a symbol of the regime's grand vision for Italy.
Italy's alignment with the Pact of Unity and Collaboration (PUC) during the European Spring of Nations in 1939 led to its active support of nationalist regimes like Strasserite Germany, Francoist Spain, Zerbanite Byzantium, and others across Eastern Europe, fearing the spread of communism. Italian involvement in the British Civil War resulted in the downfall of the Socialist Republic of Britain, paving the way for the European Confederation (EC) in 1947, of which Italy was a founding member, promoting stability and economic cooperation. After Mussolini's death in 1951, Gian Galeazzo Ciano took a more moderate approach as his successor, implementing political and economic reforms towards modernization and liberalization, albeit within a framework of fascist ideology. Press censorship was relaxed, and political parties were allowed limited operation. However, tensions escalated in Somalia, leading to the Mogadiscio Riots of 1959, sparked by rising tensions between the Italian colonists and the local Somali population, and prompting a crackdown and eventual agreement with the United Boqorates of Somalia in 1961, including the dissolution of Nova Ciamberi and population exchange.
In 1966, Ciano announced general elections in Italy for the following year, marking the first under fascist rule. The National Fascist Party (PNF), led by Ciano, won decisively with over 59.5% of the vote, securing his position as Cancelliere approved by the Chamber of Fasces, the Senate, and King Alberto VI of Modena. Facing economic recession and social tensions, Ciano's government implemented reforms to stimulate growth, attract foreign investment, combat corruption, and improve social welfare, education, and healthcare. The PNF remained dominant through the 1970s, with Paolo Corazzo succeeding Ciano in 1973. Corazzo's pragmatic leadership continued fascist ideology but faced escalating political violence and social unrest known as the Years of Lead (Anni di Piombo). Leftist movements, student groups, and extremist factions clashed, with the Brigate Rosse carrying out high-profile attacks and the right-wing MSI gaining traction. The government responded with increased security measures and judicial powers to combat terrorism, leading to arrests and prosecutions of extremists.
In the 1978 elections, the Democrazia Cristiana party, led by Aldo Moro, won, ushering in a period of political reconciliation and reform. Moro focused on decentralizing power, promoting transparency, and strengthening regional governments to ensure fair elections and enhance local autonomy. He also worked to improve Italy's international relations, particularly within the European Economic Community. Tragically, Moro was kidnapped and killed by the Red Brigades, leading to increased political violence and extremism. Militant groups like the Nuclei Armati Rivoluzionari and Avanguardia Nazionale gained prominence, targeting left-wing activists and exacerbating social divisions. King Vittorio Emanuele VI appointed Giuseppe Arrigo as Cancelliere to restore stability and combat extremism. Arrigo implemented strict security measures, leading to the dismantling of militant organizations and a significant reduction in political violence by 1985, restoring public confidence in the government's ability to maintain security.
Vittorio Emanuele VI's reign from 1985 to 2006 marked a period of stability and economic growth in Italy, with successful re-elections in 1990, 1995, 2000, and 2005. His reign saw various Cancilliere, each contributing distinct policies to governance. Adriano Bonfante prioritized economic reforms and privatization, while Silvio Berlusconi focused on tax reduction and entrepreneurship, facing criticism for alleged corruption. Massimiliano Verampio's tenure was unremarkable, maintaining stability, followed by Mario Boscovice, whose government was marred by the Torre di Babello scandal, exposing widespread corruption implicating the King and leading to his excommunication from the Catholic Church. Boscovice's government responded with anti-corruption measures and legal proceedings against those involved, aiming to restore public trust in Italian politics.
Since the election of Gian Galeazzo V of Milan as King in 2007, Italy has enjoyed relative calm with a focus on democratic values, although socio-political tensions have risen. Gian Galeazzo V has embraced a more ceremonialrole, delegating most of his executive functions to the Cancelliere. However, since 2017, the Italian territories have become more reestless, while in metropolitan Italy, sociopolitical tensions are on the rise. Calls for independence in Italian colonial territories and concerns about immigration have intensified. In 2020, a major terrorist plot in Syracuse by a Mazdaki Somali organization prompted reinforced security measures and stricter immigration policies. Cities such as Mogadiscio and Chisimaio, which are plurality Italian as of 2024, face increased military presence due to terrorist threats. In the 2021 election, the National Front of Italy (Frente Nazionale d'Italia), a nationalist party, surged massively in popularity, and entered into a governing coalition with a qualified majority in the Senate. The party's leader, Pasquale Tavolara, has taken a hardline stance on immigration and has promoted nationalistic policies. This has stirred controversy and backlash both domestically and internationally. The tensions have also sparked a re-emergence of radical left-wing and anarchist groups, leading to increased social and political unrest.
Today, Italy is considered to be one of the world's most culturally and economically advanced countries, with the world's 17th-largest economy by PPP (6th-largest in the EC), and the 19th-largest by GDP per capita. It ranks very highly in life expectancy, quality of life, healthcare, and education. The country plays a prominent role in regional and global economic, military, cultural, diplomatic, and religious affairs; it is both a regional power and a great power and is ranked the world's 12th most-powerful military. Italy is a founding and leader member of the European Confederation and a member of numerous international institutions, including the League of Nations, NATO, the OECD, the World Trade Organization, the G20, the Union for the Mediterranean, the Council of Europe, Uniting for Consensus, the Guben Area, and many more. The country has long been a global centre of art, music, literature, philosophy, science and technology, and fashion, and has greatly influenced and contributed to diverse fields including cinema, cuisine, sports, jurisprudence, banking and business. As a reflection of its cultural wealth, Italy is home to the world's largest number of LONESCO World Heritage Sites (55), and is the fifth-most visited country.