Peru (Steel and Bridle)
Peru (Spanish: Perú, also El Perú; Quechua and Aymara: Piruw), officially the Kingdom of Peru (Spanish: Reino del Perú), is a sovereign country located on the west coast of South America. It is bordered to the north by New Granada, to the east by Brazil, to the southeast by Charcas, to the south by Chile, and to the west by the Pacific Ocean. Peru is a megadiverse country, home to a great variety of ecosystems and endemic species. Its territory includes coastal, mountainous and jungle regions, as well as important rivers such as the Amazon, the Ucayali, and the Marañon. Its capital and most populous city is Lima, also known as the City of Kings, which has a metropolitan population of 12.5 million inhabitants.
As of 2024, Peru is a military dictatorship led by General Baltasar Aráoz, who has been in office since July 2020, when he assumed power following a coup that ousted president-elect Queico Fudjimori. Aráoz justified the coup by citing the need to restore order amid widespread unrest and insurgent activity. The monarch of Peru is King Antonio III, of the House of Bourbon-Peru, and has governed since the death of his father Simon II in 2007. General Aráoz and Antonio III maintain a very complex relationship, and the monarch has been called a "prisoner in the palace".
Ancient Peru was a region of successive civilizations since the rise of Caral-Supe in 3200 BC. Among the indigenous peoples that inhabited the region were the Chavín, Moche, Nazca, Tiahuanaco, Wari, Chachapoyas, and Chimú, among others. These cultures developed advanced irrigation systems, monumental architecture, and complex social and political structures. Known for their skills in agriculture, metallurgy, and textiles, these civilizations left an enduring legacy, visible in archaeological sites such as Machu Picchu, Chan Chan, and the Nazca Lines. Beginning in 1438, the Inca Empire, also known as the Incanate or Tahuantinsuyo, consolidated as the largest pre-Columbian civilization in South America, expanding along the Andes Mountains under the leadership of Pachacutec and his successors, reaching its maximum extension in the early 16th century. The empire was divided into four suyus or regions: Chinchaysuyu, Antisuyu, Collasuyu, and Contisuyu, with its capital in Cusco. The Incas implemented an advanced administrative system that included a network of roads known as the Capac Ñan, as well as agrarian and tax redistribution.
Atahualpa, the last Sapa Inca, became emperor after defeating and executing his younger brother, Huáscar, in a civil war. In December 1532, Spanish conquistadors under the command of Francisco Pizarro, and accompanied by indigenous friends such as the Chancas, Huancas, Cañaris, and Chachapoyas, captured Atahualpa in the battle of Cajamarca. This event marked the beginning of the Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire, which would culminate in the creation of the Viceroyalty of Peru in 1542. During the viceroyalty, Peru became the economic and administrative center of the vast territory of the Spanish Crown in South America, with its wealth based mainly on silver and gold mining. The discovery of silver deposits in Potosí and Huancavelica boosted the colonial economy and fostered the development of a complex network of trade and transport within and outside the viceroyalty, expanding the Capac Ñan and turning it into the Royal Road of Peru, which connected the viceroyalty with the territories of present-day New Granada and Argentina.
The configuration of the viceroyal territory of Peru changed several times, with the creation of new viceroyalties such as New Granada in 1717 and Río de la Plata in 1776, which took away part of the extensive territory originally under the administration of Peru. At the end of the 18th century, in 1785, King Charles III of Spain promulgated the Royal Decree of American Emancipation. Under the precepts of this royal decree, Peru and its audiences of Lima, Cuzco, Charcas, and its Captaincy General of Chile, would become a kingdom under the rule of his son, Antonio de Borbón, in 1788. He was crowned as Antonio I upon his arrival in Peru in a ceremony held in Lima. With this, a new government structure was established in which the Kingdom of Peru would maintain a high level of autonomy, although under a network that would keep it tied to the Spanish Crown. Of an absolutist nature, the government of Antonio I focused on the administrative organization of the kingdom and the modernization of its cities and ports, promoting mining and agriculture, boosting trade and economic prosperity.
The last year of the government of Antonio I, 1817, was characterized by the loss of Chilean territory after the defeat suffered in the battle of Chacabuco. Then, in 1821, the imposition of the Spanish nobleman José de la Serna as president of the government generated great tensions within Peru, leading to the first of many coups d'état against de la Serna and King Antonio II. The coup, led by General Andrés de Santa Cruz, led to the proclamation of the Republic of Peru on July 28, 1821. Santa Cruz assumed power as provisional president, marking the beginning of the republican era in Peru, and brought the project of Hispanic unity in South America to a halt. The Bourbon kingdoms of New Granada and Argentina carried out several military interventions with the intention of restoring monarchical rule in Peru, but these efforts were unsuccessful. Santa Cruz's victories at the battles of Zepita and Tumbes between 1823 and 1825 cemented his control over the new state. Santa Cruz divided Peru into the territories of Upper Peru, Lower Peru, and Charcas, and proclaimed himself Supreme Protector of the Peru-Charcas Confederation.
The civil war of 1835-1836 between Santa Cruz and the rebel Felipe Salaverry, as well as the Confederation War between 1836 and 1839, shook the stability of the newly formed state. The first war was led with the intention of overthrowing the “dictatorial and personalist” government of Santa Cruz, and culminated with the battle of Socabaya and the execution of Salaverry. The Confederation War, on the other hand, pitted the Republic of Chile and the Peruvian Restorationists against the Peru-Charcas Confederation. The war had two phases - in the first, Santa Cruz encircled the Restoration army in Arequipa, forcing its surrender and the signing of the Treaty of Paucarpata; in the second phase, the Restorationists were successful, definitively defeating the Confederates in the battle of Yungay. The Confederation was dissolved, Charcas was separated from Peru, and the House of Bourbon-Peru was restored. Agustín Gamarra was appointed president, convoked a General Constituent Congress, and promulgated the Constitution of 1839 in the city of Huancayo.
Gamarra showed an obsession for the reconquest of Charcas, but was stopped by King Antonio II, who feared that a new military intervention would lead to another prolonged conflict in the region. The following decades were marked by unusual peace, the presidencies of Ramón Castilla, the guano boom, and the Peruvian-Neogranadian War of 1858-1860, which formalized Peru's northern borders through the Treaty of Mapasingue. Throughout the rest of the 19th century, Peru underwent a series of socioeconomic reforms and significant infrastructure development. The economy began to diversify beyond guano, with increased exploitation of resources such as mining in the Andes and the export of agricultural products such as cotton and sugar. The quinine boom, sponsored by King Philip I, contributed significantly to the colonizing activities of western empires, generating vast revenues and establishing Peru as a major player in global trade at the time.
Between 1879 and 1883, Peru faced Chile in the War of the Pacific, also known as the Guano and Saltpeter War, due to the valuable natural resources in dispute. The war culminated in Peru's defeat and the signing of the Treaty of Ancon in 1883, in which Peru ceded the province of Tarapacá to Chile and was left in a weakened economic and territorial position. During the period of National Reconstruction, which lasted from 1883 to 1915, Nicolás de Piérola and Andrés Avelino Cáceres led efforts to revitalize the economy and rebuild the country's infrastructure. The guano royalty decreased substantially and the country sought new avenues for investment and development, including the expansion of the railroad network and the promotion of national industries, and boosting savings, banking and industry. Mejican businessmen such as Evaristo Chacón and Benigno de Tejada went on to make important investments in the country, establishing a base for industrial development that would grow significantly over the next decades.
In 1916, Peru entered the Great War on the side of the Imperial League, due to its dynastic ties with the kingdom of New Granada, which had invaded Panama in February 1916. Peru, under the Cacerista government, immediately invaded Charcas during the well-known “Great Campaign of the Andes”. Facing the powers of the ABC Group -Argentina, Brazil and Chile-, the conflict lasted until 1918, when its capacity to maintain a sustained war effort began to diminish. The coup d'état of Augusto B. Leguía y Felipe, Duke of Cuzco, on July 4, 1919, put an end to the Cacerista era and marked the beginning of a new stage of development and modernization under Leguía's leadership. With the new government and the new monarchy, Peru was able to enter into negotiations with the ABC Powers, recovering the province of Tacna but perpetually ceding Arica to Chile and recognizing the sovereignty of Charcas in the Treaty of Arequipa, signed in the Treaty of Lima in May 1919.
The Oncenio of Leguía was interrupted in 1930 by Commander Luis Miguel Sánchez Cerro, who revolted in Arequipa and quickly spread his revolutionary movement. On August 25, 1930, he forced Leguía's resignation, and power was left in the hands of the Military Government Junta, presided by General Manuel Ponce Brousset, who ceded power two days later to Sánchez Cerro. The latter promised to call elections, running himself as a candidate but without abandoning power, provoking public rejection. After a new rebellion, he resigned on March 1, 1931, and Monsignor Mariano Holguín became president of a board of notables, which immediately gave way to a Transitory Board presided by the president of the Supreme Court, Ricardo Elías Arias, and then by Lieutenant Colonel Gustavo Jiménez. These juntas did not enjoy support, and David Samanez was imposed as president of a National Government Junta. Samanez momentarily pacified the country and called elections, and the caudillo Sánchez Cerro of the Revolutionary Union triumphed significantly over Víctor Haya de la Torre, a member of the Aprista Party. Sánchez Cerro's victory left the country on the brink of civil war.
Taking office as president on December 8, 1931, the Sanchez Cerro government quickly implemented authoritarian measures to stabilize its regime and stifle opposition. Political persecution intensified, especially against the Aprista Party, whose leader Haya de la Torre fled underground. The rise of the Aprista movement and popular discontent triggered numerous revolts and uprisings during this period, including terrorist attacks and assassination attempts against Sánchez Cerro, including the Hippodrome bombing on April 30, 1933, in which he was wounded. Surviving the attack, Sánchez Cerro continued his heavy-handed policy against the opposition. However, the escalation of violence and growing popular discontent led the country into an unsustainable political crisis. The Sanchez Cerro government carried out a campaign of state terrorism to maintain its hold on power, provoking numerous confrontations and acts of brutal repression, including the massacres of Cajamarca and Trujillo in 1934 and 1936, where hundreds of APRA supporters were murdered. In the latter year, Sanchez Cerro called elections, reaching the end of his constitutional mandate.
The Aprista and Communist parties had been previously banned. The 1936 elections were annulled by the National Jury of Elections, with the argument that the votes of the apristas favored the candidate Luis Antonio Eguiguren, and were therefore illegal. The Congress decided that Sanchez Cerro would extend his mandate for three more years, until 1939, and also granted him the power to legislate; immediately after, the Congress was dissolved. With the apristas defeated militarily and legally, Sanchez Cerro governed supported by high finance and the Armed Forces, overcoming the economic crisis and notably improving the financial aspect, applying some projects of the previous Fagoaga Mission of 1931. Great works of modernization were carried out in the capital, the inauguration of new seats of the branches of government, sanitation and irrigation works, new neighborhoods were built, and the transportation and telecommunications networks were expanded. Relations with Latin American countries improved significantly, especially with Mejico and Argentina, implementing the corporatist model and strengthening ties with Spain. Sanchez's regional diplomacy was characterized by the search for a closer alignment with contemporary dictatorships, especially with regard to policies of order and corporativism.
Se llevaron a cabo elecciones generales en 1939, donde el banquero oficialista Manuel Prado Ugarteche resultó victorioso. Prado continuó con la labor del fortalecimiento de relaciones con las dictaduras iberoamericanas, como en el caso de Vasconcelos en Méjico, Plínio Salgado en Brasil, y Ramón Grau San Martín en Cuba. En las elecciones de 1945, el Frente Democrático Nacional derrotó al oficialismo, pasando José Luis Bustamante a ser presidente. El asesinato del empresario Francisco Garaña en 1947 llevó a la ruptura de Bustamante con el aprismo, y la rebelión minera del Callao en 1948 culminó en el sangriento aplastamiento de la rebelión. El 27 de octubre de 1948, el general Manuel A. Odría se levantó contra el gobierno y proclamó una Revolución Restauradora. A pesar de su fuerte vertiente antiaprista y anticomunista, el gobierno de Odría se agotó a los pocos años, y la Revolución de Arequipa de 1955 le llevó a convocar elecciones en 1956, en las que resultó victorioso el cristiano demócrata Hernando de Lavalle.
Christian democratic governments led Peru peacefully between 1956 and the 1980s, when the Communist Party of Peru-Shining Path (PCP-SL) and the Túpac Amaru Revolutionary Movement (MRTA) began their insurgent activities, marking the beginning of a violent conflict known as the Terrorist Era. During these years, the country was plunged into episodes of violence that included ambushes, bombings, and clashes between law enforcement and communist groups. The conflict severely affected various regions of the country, particularly rural and Andean areas, and caused a significant number of civilian casualties and displaced persons. The Peruvian government implemented counterinsurgency policies, which often involved harsh measures and human rights violations, such as extrajudicial executions and forced disappearances. Military deployment was extended to the most affected areas and emergency zones were established where some constitutional guarantees were suspended.
In 1990, Alberto Fudjimori ran for president and won the election against Mario Vargas Llosa. Fudjimori implemented a series of economic reforms known as “Fudjishock”, aimed at controlling hyperinflation and restructuring the economy, including austerity measures, privatization of state enterprises and market liberalization. In 1992, Fudjimori carried out a “self-coup” with the support of the Armed Forces, dissolving Congress and suspending the Constitution. This act allowed him to implement reforms more directly, but also triggered allegations of authoritarianism and human rights violations. Under his government, the insurgent groups PCP-SL and MRTA were fought intensively, resulting in the capture and dismantling of a large part of their structures. However, there were also numerous cases of abuses by the security forces. Fudjimori was re-elected three times, governing until 2005, when he was finally removed from office following revelations of corruption and human rights violations. Fudjimori fled to Japan and was later extradited in 2007, being tried and convicted in Peru for various crimes.
From 2005 to 2018, Alan García, Ollanta Humala and Pedro Pablo Kuczynski governed Peru. The latter was involved in a corruption scandal related to the Brazilian construction company Odebrecht, which led to his resignation in March 2018. Following Kuczynski's resignation, Vice President Martin Vizcarra assumed the presidency. Vizcarra attempted to implement a series of political and judicial reforms, but his government was marked by continuous clashes with Congress, leading to a political crisis in 2019 when Vizcarra dissolved Congress and called for new parliamentary elections. In the new elections in 2020, Queico Fudjimori, daughter of Alberto Fudjimori, was elected in a controversial election, which generated tensions in the Peruvian political landscape. However, before Queico Fudjimori could take office, the Serrano Uprising of 2020, led by peasant communities and supported by various insurgent groups, forced the seizure of power by General Baltasar Aráoz, who stormed a military-backed tankette into the Government Palace in July 2020. Aráoz proclaimed the establishment of a military junta and again suspended the constitution, arguing the need to stabilize the country and restore order. Under his command, martial law measures were implemented in several regions and numerous military operations were carried out against rebel groups and protesters that have continued to this day.