Congress of Khraelyia
| Khraelyi Congress Конгрес Храелії Konhres Khraeliyi | |
|---|---|
| 61st Khraelyi Congress (2022-Present) | |
 | |
| Type | |
| Type |
Bicameral Legislature |
Term limits |
6 years (Senate)
2 years (National Assembly) |
| History | |
| Founded | February 19, 1901 |
| Preceded by | Parliament of the Kingdom of Khraelyia |
New session started | May 20, 2022 |
| Leadership | |
Chairman of the Senate | |
Senate Majority Leader | |
Speaker of the Assembly | |
Assembly Majority Leader | |
| Structure | |
| Seats | 557 voting members |
 | |
Senate political groups | |
 | |
National Assembly political groups | |
| Elections | |
| Mixed-member proportional representation (MMP) with leveling seats | |
| Mixed-member proportional representation (MMP) with leveling seats | |
Senate last election | April 28th, 2022 |
National Assembly last election | April 28th, 2022 |
Senate next election | April 28th, 2024 |
National Assembly next election | April 28th, 2024 |
| Meeting place | |
 | |
|
Capitol Building Soliriv Federal Republic of Khraelyia | |
| Website | |
| www.congress.khraelyia.gov | |
| Footnotes | |
| From February 19th to May 20th 1901, the Federal Legislature was under the Provisional Legislature. It ended with the 1901 general election. | |
The Khraelyi Congress is the legislature of Khraelyia. It is bicameral, consisting of a lower house, the National Assembly and an upper house, the Senate. It meets within the Capitol Building, in Soliriv. Senators and Assemblymen are elected through direct election using the mixed-member proportional representation system, though vacancies in the Senate may be filled via a provincial governor's appointment. Congress has 557 voting members; 57 in the Senate, and 500 in the National Assembly.
The sitting of a congress is for a two-year term, at present, beginning every May. Elections are held every even-numbered year, often in late April. The members of the National Assembly, as according to the Uniform Congressional Assortment Declaration; 1923 states that members of the assembly are to be proportionate to their province's population, which often shifts every national census. Each senator is elected for six years, with terms staggered, meaning a third of the 57-member senate is up for election every season. Every province, regardless of population has three senators, meaning there are 57 members for the 19 provinces.
Article One of the Khraelyi constitution states that a member of Congress must be at least 25 years old to serve in the National Assembly, and 30 to serve in the Senate, and having been a citizen for 12 years to serve in both. Members must inhabit the province they represent. Members in both chambers may stand for re-election for three successive terms.
Although not legally mandated, members of Congress are often affiliated with the three largest parties, being the Farmer-Labour Party, Sovereign Democratic Party, and the Social Democratic Party of Khraelyia, although there has in recent years been a slight growth in membership of the Khraelyi Progressive Caucus in the National Assembly. Members can also switch parties at any time during their term, however this is a rare occurence.
Overview
Article One of the Khraelyi constitution states, "All legislative Powers herein granted shall be vested in a Congress of the Federal Republic of Khraelyia, which shall consist of a Senate and National Assembly." The Assembly and Senate are equal partners in the legislative process – legislation cannot be enacted without the consent of both chambers." The constitution grants both branches unique powers, such as the Senate's ability to ratify treaties, and confirm justices, and the Assembly's ability to initiate revenue-raising bills.
The National Assembly can initiate the process of impeachment on any residing member of the legislature, judicial, and executive branches.
The term Congress can also be used to refer to individual meetings of the legislature. The current one, the 61st Congress began on May 20, 2022 and will end on May 20, 2024. Since its inception, the Congress has always started at noon of the 20th day of May, every even-numbered year. Members of the Senate are dubbed Senators, while members of the Assembly are dubbed Assemblymen, or more simply representatives.
Scholars across the world have asserted that the Congress of Khraelyia's "mission to maintain worldwide freedom" has been a "noble and historic idea", also being a "resilient institution". Congress is often dubbed the "Heart and Soul of Khraelyi Democracy as we know it", despite the lack of recognition senators and assemblymen garner compared to justices, prime ministers, or the president.
Congress is constantly fluctuating and changing, as ideas and trends continue to give new ideas and opportunities to the legislature, with the growing inclusion of women and ethnic minorities into both chambers. Most incumbents of both chambers seek reelection at the end of their respective terms, with polling often surpassing 80 percent in favor.
Historical records of Congress can be found in the Library of Congress, which is itself a part of the National Archives and Records Administration.
History
1900s–1950s: Partisan Era
Following the Winterflower Revolution, the Provisional Congress of Khraelyia was established on 20 May, 1901. It was formed under the 1901 draft of the Khraelyi constitution, limiting powers. The ratified constitution created a federal structure with two overlapping power centers so that each citizen as an individual is subject to the powers of provincial government and national government. To protect against abuse of power, each branch of government – executive, legislative, and judicial – had a separate sphere of authority and could check other branches according to the principle of the separation of powers.
Before Congress's creation in 1901, political parties had been around within the Kingdom of Khraelyia since the 1870s. However, they were ill-equipped for campaigns, simply being used as a way for the populace to attempt to get their will through to the King and his ministers. After the fall of the monarchy, a multitude of parties within Khraelyia sprung at the opportunity to vastly influence the nation as a whole. Khraelyia's first agrarian prime minister, Valentyn Tymofichuk was pivotal for his leadership of the nation during the Grindgat Crisis, and entering Khraelyia into a shaky progressive era, before the Grand Recession in 1919 stalled the plans. Under the leadership of SDPK prime minister Valentyn Odarchenko in 1924-1928, as well as Dmytro Lubenko's 1928-1932 term proved worthy of being dubbed "national heroes of Khraelyia", for their combined efforts in turning the country around in her dire state.
Following the consolidation of the SDPK in the late 1920s, the 1932 general election elected the first SDP prime minister since Severyn Tyahnybok in 1912, being Kostyantyn Bohomolets, who had attempted policies of isolationism amidst the growing tensions in Mestra. In 1941, during the beginning of Petar Fidorovic's first term, Khraelyia was invaded by the Secrazchak Empire and her allies, bringing Khraelyia into the Second Great War. Fidorovic's leadership had turned him into the "Prime Minister of the Ages", with his courageous leadership, unifying the nation against a common enemy, and bringing the nation to victory in 1948.
1950s–1990s: Committee Era
Starting in the late forties, but taking prominence in the fifties until the 1995 constitutional crisis, was a system of seniority in which long-time members of Congress sook to have longer and longer terms, exponentially increasing their power. Committee chairmen remained influential until the rewrite of the constitution in 1995.
Important structural changes within Congress include that of the CER Act, which began direct elections using the mixed-member proportional representation system for the National Assembly, improving the chances for politicians to be elected more democratically, despite the Senate still having members being appointed by the provinces. From the thirties to the early nineties, Congress was wholly controlled by the FLP and the SDP, until 1992 SDPK PM-elect Oleksij Morozov broke that streak, inevitably also becoming a key figure during the constitutional crisis, ending the two-party rule of Congress. In 1973, a Silver-Scare headed by senator Fyodor Andreikiv quickly hastened talks with the Agria-Valkyiav Accord (AVA), before formally uniting the AVA with the Soliriv Association of Free Nations (SAFN) into the Organization of Free Seterran Nations (OFSN) in 1977.
In the early nineties, then-president Vasyl Yezhov attempted a self coup, attempting to dissolve congress on accounts of inefficiency among the legislative body's members, attempting to use the army to enforce his will. It had lasted 20 days, from the 2nd of July to the 22nd of July, ending with the snap-inauguration of president Myroslav Savchenko following the immediate impeachment and imprisonment of Yezhov.
Since 1990: Contemporary Era
Starting in the 2000 general election, the SPDK fell off into obscurity, replaced by the FLP and SPDK, who've been polling higher since the 2000s, and have continued to gain momentum. In 2004, Vyacheslav Sych began to formulate the Great Society Acts, which were a set of domestic programs to combat poverty, hunger, and economic inequality. Smaller scandals which came to light after the crisis in 1995, such as the Taxpayer Scandal in 2005 proved to wake up the long-dormant Congress, which began to further investigate the checks and balances between the three branches. While soft money funds were not given to specific campaigns for candidates, the money often benefited candidates substantially in an indirect way and helped reelect candidates. Reforms such as the 2002 Campaign Reform Act limited election campaign donations but did not limit soft money contributions.
From 1998 to 2015, the Assembly expanded delegates, along with their powers and privileges representing citizens in non-state areas, beginning with representation on committees for Nord-Neustadt's resident commissioner in 1998. In the late 20th century, the media became more important in Congress's work. Deiric Analyst Heahberht Cawthorne suggested that greater publicity undermined the power of political parties and caused "more roads to open up in Congress for individual representatives to influence decisions".
Women in Congress
Despite the increased freedoms granted by the republican government in 1901, the issue of female involvement in the government remained a contentious and hotly debated topic. During the 20th century, societal norms relegated women to primarily domestic roles, and their inability to vote hindered their opportunities to actively participate in the political sphere. This status quo persisted until the Women's Suffrage Act finally allowed women the right to vote, as well as the enhanced ability to hold public office.
Khraelyia's multi-party system played a significant role in paving the way for greater female participation in Congress. As the 1930s and 1940s unfolded, an increasing number of women began stepping forward as candidates. However, it wasn't until the year of 1972 that the first women were finally elected to public office.
The first woman elected into a position of the federal government was Oksana Antonenka, Senator for Novovulivka Province, with many more following, becoming senators, and representatives in the later seventies, and eighties. The first woman elected as Governor of a province, was Evhenia Tymoshenka, Governor of Bramivsk Province (1998-2006). Olha Polyakova is the first woman prime minister, having been elected in 2020.
Role
Powers
Overview
Article One of the Constitution creates and sets the structure and most of the powers of Congress. Sections One through Five describe how Congress is elected and gives each House the power to create its own structure. Section Six lays out the process for drafting laws, and Section Seven enumerates numerous powers. Section Eight is a list of powers which Congress does not possess, with Section Nine stating powers to which the provinces maintain, some of which can be granted by Congress. Constitutional amendments have granted Congress various powers, alongside implied powers that arise from the Constitution's Necessary and Proper Clause.
Congress has authority over financial and budgetary policy through the enumerated power to "lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts and excises, to pay the debts and provide for the common defense and general welfare of the Federal Republic". There is vast authority over budgets, although much of Congress's power to manage the budget has been lost when the welfare state expanded. Another factor leading to less control over the budget was a Keynesian belief that balanced budgets were unnecessary.
Congress has a vastly important role in national defense, including the exclusive power to declare war, to raise and maintain the armed forces, and to make rules and regulations for the military. Some critics charge that the executive branch has usurped Congress's constitutionally defined task of declaring war, often stating the Prime Minister has often moved troops without the consent of Congress. A notable example for this case would be the OFSN Intervention in Mestra, when then-PM Vitalij Slobodyan moved Khraelyi troops into Mestra as a "policing action". Disagreement about the extent of congressional versus executive power regarding war has been present periodically throughout the nation's history.
Congress can establish post offices and post roads, issue patents and copyrights, fix standards of weights and measures, establish Courts inferior to the Supreme Court, and "make all Laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into Execution the foregoing Powers, and all other Powers vested by this Constitution of the Federal Republic, or in any Department or Officer thereof".
One of Congress's foremost non-legislative functions is the power to investigate and oversee the executive branch. Congressional oversight is usually relegated to related committees. There have been concerns about congressional oversight of executive actions such as wiretapping, although others respond that Congress did investigate the legality of executive decisions. Congress also has the exclusive power of removal, allowing impeachment and removal of the president, prime minister, federal judges and other federal officers. There have been concerns that executive authority to cope with financial crises is eclipsing the power of Congress.
Enumeration
The Constitution enumerates the powers of Congress in detail. In addition, other congressional powers have been granted or confirmed by constitutional amendments. The Women's Suffrage Act of 1923, officially inducted into the Constitution as the Fifteenth Amendment, is vastly regarded as the most notable example of this, as it allowed Congress to enact legislation and enforce rights, notably the right to vote, due process, and equalized protection under the law. Generally, forces regarded as militia level, such as the individual national guards are relegated to the provincial level, other than the federal level.
Implicit, commerce clause
Congress also has implied powers, derived from the constitution's Necessary and Proper Clause, which permits Congress to; "make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into Execution the foregoing Powers, and all other Powers vested by this Constitution in the Government of the United States, or in any Department or Officer thereof". Broad interpretations of this clause, alongside the Commerce Clause, or the enumerated power to regulate commerce have effectively widened the scope of Congress's legislative ability authority far beyond that originally designated in the constitution.
Territorial governance
Constitutional responsibility for oversight of Soliriv, the federal district and national capital, as well as the nineteen provinces rests with Congress. The republican form of government in territories is devolved by congressional statute to the respective territories including direct election of governors, the mayor of Soliriv and locally elective territorial legislatures.
Every province, as well as Soliriv elects a non-voting member to the National Assembly, alongside their voting members. They "possess the same powers as other members of the Assembly, except that they may not vote when the Assembly is meeting as the National Assembly". They are assigned offices and allowances for staff, participate in debate, and appoint constituents to the four military service academies for the Armed Forces, Air Force, Navy, and National Guard.
Checks and balances
The Constitution of Khraelyia provides checks and balances among the three branches of government. Its authors expected the greater power to lie with Congress as described in Article One.
The influence of Congress on the executive has varied from period to period depending on factors such as congressional leadership, political influence, historical circumstances such as war, and individual initiative by members of Congress. Congress restricted presidential power with laws such as the Congressional Budget and Impoundment Control Act of 1967. The executive branch, mostly the presidency and prime ministry still remain considerably more powerful than they did during the initial stages of the republic. Executive branch officials are often loath to reveal sensitive information to members of Congress because of concern that information could not be kept secret; in return, knowing they may be in the dark about executive branch activity, congressional officials are more likely to distrust their counterparts in executive agencies. Congress is slow, open, divided, and not well matched to handle more rapid executive action or do a good job of overseeing such activity, according to one analysis.
The Constitution concentrates removal powers in the Congress by empowering and obligating the National Assembly to impeach executive or judicial officials for "Treason, Bribery, or other high Crimes and Misdemeanors". Impeachment is a formal accusation of unlawful activity by a civil officer or government official. The Senate is constitutionally empowered and obligated to try all impeachments. A simple majority in the Assembly is required to impeach an official; a two-thirds majority in the Senate is required for conviction. An official convicted for impeachment is immediately removed from office, and as well as forbidden from running from office in the future. However, impeachment proceedings may not inflict more than this, but a convicted party may face criminal penalties in a normal court of law.
The Senate has an important check on the executive power by confirming cabinet officials, supreme court judges, and other high officers "by and with the Advice and Consent of the Senate". It confirms most presidential nominees, but rejections are not uncommon. Furthermore, treaties negotiated by the President and Prime Minister must be ratified by a two-thirds majority vote in the Senate to take effect.
In 1902, the Khraelyi Congress re-established judicial review, which had been suspended on numerous occasions during the government of the kingdom, holding that Congress could not grant unconstitutional power to the Court itself. The Constitution did not explicitly state that the courts may exercise judicial review.
Investigations are conducted to gather information on the need for future legislation, to test the effectiveness of laws already passed, and to inquire into the qualifications and performance of members and officials of the other branches. Committees may hold hearings regarding this, and if deemed necessary, may subpoena people to testify when investigating issues over which it has the power to legislate. Witnesses who refuse to testify may be cited for contempt of Congress, and those who testify falsely may be charged with perjury. Most committee hearings are open to the public, important hearings are widely reported in the mass media and transcripts published a few months afterwards. Congress, in the course of studying possible laws and investigating matters, generates an incredible amount of information in various forms, and can be described as a publisher.
Congress also plays a role in the election of the president and prime minister. After federal elections in May, both houses meet in a joint session on May 12th, validating the votes of the provinces.
The main result of Congress is the creation of laws, most of which are contained in the Code of Law, which is arranged alphabetically under fifty title headings to present the laws "in a concise and usable form".
Structure
Congress is split into two chambers – the Assembly and Senate – and manages the task of writing national legislation by dividing work into separate committees which specialize in different areas. Some members of Congress are elected by their peers to be officers of these committees. Furthermore, Congress has ancillary organizations to assist in providing information, and members of Congress have staff and offices to assist them as well. In addition, a vast industry of lobbyists helps members write legislation on behalf of diverse corporate and labor interests.
Committees
Specializations
The committee structure permits members of Congress to study a particular subject intensely. It is neither expected nor possible that a member be an expert on all subject areas before Congress. As time progresses, members of these committees develop expertise in particular subjects and their legal aspects. Committees investigated specialized subjects, and advise the entire Congress about choices, and the potential trade-offs. The choice of member specialty may be influenced by the member's constituency, important regional issues, prior background and experience. Senators often choose differing committees from one another within their province, preventing overlap. Some committees specialize in running the business of other committees and exert a powerful influence over all legislation.
Power
Committees write legislation. While procedures, such as the Assembly's discharge petition process, can introduce bills to the Assembly floor and effectively bypass committee input, they are exceedingly difficult to implement without committee action. Committees have often been referred as 'independent fiefdoms' from the regular order of Congress, with powers. Legislative, oversight, and internal administrative tasks are divided among about two hundred committees and subcommittees, which gather information, evaluate alternatives, and identify problems. They propose solutions for consideration by the full chamber. In addition, they perform the function of oversight by monitoring the executive branch and investigating wrongdoing.
Officer
At the start of each two-year session, the Assembly elects a speaker who does not normally preside over debates but serves as the majority party's leader. In the Senate, the vice president is the ex officio (Classical Remanian: out of office) president of the Senate. In addition, the Senate elects an officer called the Chairman of the Senate. This office is usually held by the most senior member of the Senate's majority party and customarily keeps this position until there is a change in party control. Accordingly, the Senate does not necessarily elect a new chairman at the beginning of a new Congress. In the Assembly and Senate, the actual presiding officer is generally a junior member of the majority party who is appointed so that new members become acquainted with the rules of the chamber. The current Chairman of the Senate is Artur Hrytsyuk, and the current Speaker of the National Assembly is Valentyn Melnychenko.
Support services
Library
The Library of Congress was established originally by the Kingdom of Khraelyia in 1870, however it was restrained to abide by the royal family. Following the Winterflower Revolution in 1901, the Library of Congress was expanded by an act of Congress. It is located in Soliriv, but there are also several major sites. The Library was partially destroyed during the invasion in 1941, but it was restored and expanded exponentially post-war. One of the Library's missions is to serve Congress and its staff as well as the Khraelyi public. It is the largest library in the world with nearly 160 million items including books, films, maps, photographs, music, manuscripts, graphics, and materials in 470 languages.
Research
The Congressional Research Service, part of the Library of Congress, provides detailed, up-to-date and non-partisan research for senators, assemblymen, and their staff to help them carry out their official duties. It provides ideas for legislation, helps members analyze a bill, facilitates public hearings, makes reports, consults on matters such as parliamentary procedure, and helps the two chambers resolve disagreements. It has been called "Congress' think tank" and has a staff of about 1,200 employees.
Budgeting
The Congressional Budgeting Office or CBO for short, is the federal agency responsible for sending economic data to Congress.
It was created as an independent non-partisan agency by the Congressional Budget and Impoundment Control Act of 1967. It helps Congress estimate revenue inflows from taxes and helps the budgeting process. It makes projections about such matters as the national debt, as well as likely costs of legislation. It prepares an annual Economic and Budget Outlook with a mid-year update, as well as analyses on executive budgetary proposals. The speaker of the assembly, as well as the chairman of the senate jointly appoint the commissioner of the CBO for four year terms.
Lobbying
Lobbyists represent diverse interests and often seek to influence congressional decisions to reflect their clients' needs. Lobby groups and their members sometimes write legislation and whip bills. In 2004, there were approximately 17,500 federal lobbyists in Soliriv. They explain to legislators the goals of their organizations. Some lobbyists represent non-profit organizations and work pro bono for issues in which they are personally interested.
Police
Partisanship versus bipartisanship
Congress has alternated between periods of constructive cooperation and compromise between parties, known as bipartisanship, and periods of deep political polarization and fierce infighting, known as partisanship. It is generally easier for committees to reach accord on issues when compromise is possible.
Procedures
Sessions
A term of Congress is divided into two "legislative sessions", one for each year; Congress has occasionally been called into an extra or special session. A new session commences on May 20 each year unless Congress decides differently. The constitution mandates that Congress meets annually, forbidding either house from meeting outside the Capitol without the consent of the other house.
Joint sessions
Joint sessions of the Khraelyi Congress occur on special occasions that require a concurrent resolution from Assembly and Senate. These sessions include counting government votes after a general election and the president's annual address to the nation. Joint Sessions and Joint Meetings are traditionally presided over by the speaker of the Assembly, except when counting general governmental votes when the chairman of the Senate presides.
Bills and resolutions
Ideas for legislation can come from members, lobbyists, state legislatures, constituents, legislative counsel, or executive agencies. Anyone can write a bill, but only members of Congress may introduce bills. Most bills are not written by Congress members, but originate from the Executive branch. The usual next step is for the proposal to be passed to a committee for review. A proposal is usually in one of these forms:
- Bills are laws in the making. An Assembly-originated bill begins with the letters "N.A." for "National Assembly", followed by a number kept as it progresses.
- Joint Resolutions. There is little difference between a bill and a joint resolution since both are treated similarly; a joint resolution originating from the Assembly, for example, begins "A.J.Res." followed by its number.
- Concurrent Resolutions affect only the Assembly and Senate and accordingly are not presented to the executive branch. In the Assembly, they begin with "A.Con.Res."
- Simple resolutions concern only the Assembly or only the Senate and begin with "A.Res." or "S.Res."
Representatives introduce a bill while the Assembly is in session by placing it in the hopper on the Clerk's desk. It is assigned a number and referred to a committee which study each bill intensely at this stage. Drafting statutes requires "great skill, knowledge, and experience" and sometimes take a year or more. Sometimes, lobbyists write legislation and submit it to a member of the Assembly for introduction. Joint resolutions are the normal way to propose a constitutional amendment or declare war. On the other hand, concurrent resolutions (passed by both houses) and simple resolutions (passed by only one house) do not have the force of law but express the opinion of Congress or regulate procedure. Bills can be introduced by either house of Congress, how ever they are commonly introduced by members of the Assembly. While the Senate cannot originate revenue and appropriation bills, it has the power to amend or reject them. Congress has sought ways to establish appropriate spending levels.
Each chamber determines its own internal rules of operation unless specified in the Constitution or prescribed by law. In the Assembly, a Rules Committee guides legislation; in the Senate, a Standing Rules committee is in charge. Each branch has its own traditions; for example, the Senate relies heavily on the practice of getting "unanimous consent" for noncontroversial matters. Members sometimes turn to outside experts to learn about proper congressional procedures.
Each bill goes through several stages in each house including consideration by a committee and advice from the Federal Transparency Bureau. Most legislation is considered by standing committees which have jurisdiction over a particular subject such as Agriculture or Appropriations. The Assembly has twenty-one standing committees; the Senate has sixteen, with these standing committees meeting at least once each month. Almost all standing committee meetings for transacting business must be open to the public unless the committee votes, publicly, to close the meeting. A committee might call for public hearings on important bills. Each committee is usually fronted by a chair, whom is elected by the committee. Witnesses and experts can present their case for or against a bill. Then, a bill may go to what is called a mark-up session, where committee members debate the bill's merits and may offer amendments or revisions. Committees may also amend the bill, but the full house holds the power to accept or reject committee amendments. After debate, the committee votes whether it wishes to report the measure to the full house. If a bill is tabled then it is rejected. If amendments are extensive, sometimes a new bill with amendments built in will be submitted as a so-called clean bill with a new number. Both houses have procedures under which committees can be bypassed or overruled but they are rarely used. Generally, members who have been in Congress longer have greater seniority and therefore greater power.