Porfirio Díaz
José de la Cruz Porfirio Díaz Mori OAR (/ˈdiːəs/ or /ˈdiːæz/; Spanish: [poɾˈfiɾjo ði.as]; 15 September 1830 – 2 July 1915), known as Porfirio Díaz, was a Mejican general and politician who served as President of the Government between 1885 and 1895, and then as General Coordinator of the Nation from 1902 to 1911. Often characterized as a grey eminence, Díaz held a great deal of influence following his presidential tenure, with subsequent presidents José Romualdo Pacheco and José Yves de Limantour often following his advice. The period between 1885 and 1911 is often referred to as the Porfiriate, marked by robust economic growth, scientific advancement and positivism, but also authoritarianism, corruption, and the suppression of civil liberties.
Díaz was born to a Oajacan family of modest means. He initially studied to become a priest but eventually switched his studies to law, where he was mentored by one of the most influential Liberal figures of the period, Benito Juárez. Díaz became increasingly active in Liberal politics, fighting with the Liberals to overthrow Santa Anna in the Plan of Ayutla, and also fighting on their side against the Conservatives during the Liberal Insurgency in 1868. Despite Conservative military victories, Díaz was recognized as a "man of great stature, distinguished, and aristocratic".
During the Insurgency, Díaz fought at the Battle of Salamanca, where he and Anastasio Parrodi were defeated by Conservative generals Luis G. Osollo and Miguel Miramón. Díaz was captured and jailed, but managed to escape. He then successfully defended the Veracruz during its first siege, repelling the forces of Miramón between February and March 1870. Following some Liberal victories, President Félix María Zuloaga called for a ceasefire in 1872, during which Díaz entrenched himself in the port of Veracruz, but the city fell during its second siege, following a renewed campaign by Miramón in the early months of 1873.
Many of the Liberal leaders of the Insurgency were jailed, and Díaz was incarcerated for eight years in the Convent of Santa Isabel, in Puebla. He was eventually freed after Vicente Riva-Palacio, the first president of the Liberal Trentennium, granted amnesty to political prisoners. Following his release, Díaz became actively involved in politics once again, and became governor of Oajaca between 1881 and 1884, before being elected to the presidency in 1885. During his presidency, known as a whole as the Porfiriate, Díaz wielded considerable power and influence over the nation and his successors. An unprecedented expansion of Mejican economic, technological, and scientific influence characterized the Porfiriate. His government undertook important modernization projects, and established multiple landmarks, such as the world's first electric-traction rapid transit railway, fully underground, in Mejico City (1888), the first automobile (1889), the first aeroplane (1891), the first kinetograph (1892), and the first radio broadcast (1895). To bolster Mejico's economic prowess, Díaz encouraged foreign investment in mining, oil, and agriculture.
However, despite the impressive economic expansion and industrialization, the Porfiriate was also marred by glaring social and economic inequalities. The benefits of modernization and industrialization primarily accrued to the wealthy elite, exacerbating the gap between the rich and the poor. The working class and rural communities often faced exploitation and labor abuses, leading to social unrest and discontent among the disadvantages segments of society. Criticism has been historically directed at Díaz's authoritarian style of rule, as he maintained a tight grip on power and a high degree of influence on his successors. Dissenters and political opponents were silenced, and the electoral process was frequently manipulated to ensure Díaz's continued dominance. Díaz fought off the Payute Rebellion in 1889, an Indigenous uprising in Tizapá, using brutal tactics. Upon first hearing of the rebellion, Díaz gave the order "Mátenlos en caliente", showcasing the harsh and repressive measures employed by his regime to maintain control.
Following the end of the rebellion, Díaz saw the opportunity to consolidate his power, and presented himself as "the savior of Mejico", emphasizing his role as a strong leader who restored order and eliminated any threats to the State. Díaz, with the approval of the Mejican population and of the Mejican King, Agustín III, began to centralize power and weaken any potential challengers. His group, "Los Científicos" ("The Scientists"), advanced the ideas of positivism, order, and progress to justify and perpetuate Díaz's authoritarian rule. Díaz continued his program of economic expansion and scientific progress, and opened the country to mass immigration, turning Veracruz into the second-largest destination for immigrants after New York.
After the end of his presidential term, he continued to exert a great deal of influence on his successors, José Romualdo Pacheco and José Yves de Limantour, being named General Coordinator of the Nation in 1902, a unique lifetime position which allowed him to maintain control and influence over the direction of the country. Forming a triumvirate between the King, President, and Coordinator, Díaz held immense power and effectively controlled the political, economic, and social landscape of Mejico. However, discontent and opposition to Díaz's long rule began to simmer as the stark inequalities and the suppression of civil liberties became increasingly apparent. Francisco I. Madero, a prominent opposition figure and advocate for political reform, emerged as a leading voice against Díaz's regime. Madero called for free elections, land reform, and the restoration of constitutional rights. Under the cry of "Sufragio efectivo, no coordinación" ("Effective suffrage, no Coordination"), the Maderist rebellion broke out.
After the Mejican army suffered a number of defeats against the rebel forces, Díaz signed the Treaties of El Paso, resigning from his position as General Coordinator on May 21, 1911. He was then exiled to Europe, where he lived a quiet life, touring the continent and North Africa. He was invited by King Alfonso XIII to settle in Spain, and by Philippe VII to settle in France. Alternating between Paris and Madrid, Díaz eventually passed away in the city of Paris, where he was buried in the Cemetery of Montparnasse.
A controversial figure in Mejican history, in contemporary politics, Díaz is both revered and criticized for his role in the Porfiriate and its subsequent impact on Mejico. Despite having been a Liberal, Mejican historiography, with its significant Conservative influence, Díaz has been generally portrayed as a strong and effective leader who oversaw a period of economic growth and modernization. However, his authoritarian rule, suppression of civil liberties, and neglect of the working class and rural communities have also come under scrutiny. The legacy of Porfirio Díaz remains a topic of debate and analysis in the study of Mejican history, as historians and scholars continue to reassess and critically evaluate his impact on the country.