Manchuria (Country of the Everwhite Mountain)

Republic of Manchuria Манжь Дасачара Гурун ᠠᠨᠵᡠ ᡤᡠᠨᡥᡝ ᡤᡠᡵᡠᠨ
Flag Emblem
Anthem:  Манжу Гурун-и Учун Manju Gurun-i Ucun National anthem of Manchuria
Capital	Cacon
Largest city	Mukden
Official languages	Manchu, Guanhua
Recognised regional languages	Russian, Korean, Daur, Evenki, Orochon, Nanai, Japanese, Mongolian
Official scripts	Manchu Cyrillic Manchu script
Ethnic groups (2010)	44% Manchus 38% Nikan 9% Koreans 3% Mongols 2% Russians 1.7% Japanese 2.3% others
Demonym(s)	Manchu Manchurian
Government	Unitary parliamentary Republic
• President	Baigia Dorolon
• Prime Minister	Citela Sucun
Legislature	National Assembly
• Upper house	Senate
• Lower house	House of Representatives
Formation
• Jurchen Empire	formed 1115
• Qing Empire	formed 1636
• Manchukuo	1932
• People's Republic of Manchuria was established	February 1, 1946
• Sorghum Revolution	October 3, 1990
• Constitution	March 1, 1991
Area
• Total	1,151,354.40 km2 (444,540.42 sq mi) (25th)
• Water (%)	5.4
Population
• 2020 estimate	105,981,731 (15th)
• Density	96.1/km2 (248.9/sq mi) (67th)
GDP (PPP)	2019 estimate
• Total	$4.50 trillion
• Per capita	$37,084
GDP (nominal)	2019 estimate
• Total	$4.06 trillion
• Per capita	$33,493
Gini (2013)	36.5 medium
HDI (2015)	0.765 high
Currency	Muheren (MNJ)
Time zone	UTC+9
Date format	yyyy.mm.dd (CE)
Driving side	right
Calling code	+83
ISO 3166 code	MJ
Internet TLD	.mj, .ман
^ Chinese name is "Changchun"

Manchuria /mæŋˈtʃuːriə/ (// ( listen) (ᠠᠨᠵᡠ ᡬᡠᡵᡠᠨ "Manzh° Dasachara Gurun" in Manchu; Манжь Дасачара Гурун in Manchu Cyrillic) is a sovereign state in East Asia. It borders Russia to the north, Mongolia to the west, China to the southwest, and Korea in the southeast. Its capital is Cacon, and its former capital Mukden is the largest city. Its population of 121,204,300 is one of the largest on earth.

While Manchuria was dominated by Korean and Chinese dynasties, they were mostly dominated by Tungusic peoples such as the Jurchens. The region was the center of the Jin Dynasty from 1125 to 1234, when it was conquered by the Mongol Empire and its Yuan Dynasty. Southern Manchuria fell under Ming rule, but the northern parts remained outside Chinese control. The Jianzhou Jurchen chieftain Nurhaci later took over the Jurchen tribes in the 1600s, culminating in the Qing Dynasty founded by Hung Taiji in 1636, and later conquering China by 1644. Intrigues by Russia led to the loss of Outer Manchuria by 1860, with Manchuria coming under Russian influence by the late 19th century. The southern part was also later influenced by Japan by the early 1900s. By 1911, the Qing Dynasty fell and Manchuria was liberated by the forces of Wang Cenbing.Manchuria however fell to a Chinese invasion in 1920.Japan's influence increased by 1932, later establishing Manchukuo as a state allied with Japan, with the last emperor of Qing and China, Pu Yi being installed as leader. Hostility by anti-Japanese forces in Manchuria intensified, and by the end of World War II, a pro-Communist parallel government took over most parts of Manchuria, co-operating with coup-plotters in Xinjing and the Soviet and Mongolian invaders. A plebiscite held in October 1945 confirmed the independence of the new People's Republic of Manchuria.

An intensive Desinicization program was enacted, imposing the Manchu language on the majority Chinese population with great degree of controversy, and the country provided support during the Korean War. During the 1960s, disagreements with Mao Zedong and Jogia Sangsi over the latter's refusal to join the People's Republic were cited as a reason for the Sino-Soviet Split. In response for Chinese nuclear tests, Manchuria developed its own nuclear weapons, which it maintains to this day. After the fall of communism in 1991, Manchuria reformed its economy from a socialist economy to a mixed-market economy.

Although having the 15th largest economy in the world, the country has a lower GDP per capita compared to neighbors, compounded with government controversies. The economy is bolstered by new conglomerates that expanded after the fall of communism in Manchuria, propelling its rather high growth. It maintains amicable relations with most of its neighboring countries, and is a member of the United Nations, the G-20, the World Trade Organization, the Shanghai Co-Operation Organization, the World Bank, the Asian International Investment Bank, and the Asian Development Bank.

Etymology

The word Manchuria comes from the word Manju, decreed by Hung Taiji in 1636 to replace Jurchen, which was seen as derogatory.. It may have come from the Buddhist deity Manjusri, or from a compound word of "Man" was from the word "mangga" (ᠮᠠᠩᡤᠠ) which means strong and "ju" (ᠵᡠ); this is interpreted to mean "intrepid arrow".

The current English name of Manchuria is rooted in controversy. It was first used by Japanese and Western geographers during the 18th and 19th centuries. The Manchus reportedly refer to the territory as the Three Eastern Provinces (Dergi Ilan Golo). Also, the Qing Dynasty consistently refer to their territory as merely China. It was during and after World War II that the word Manchuria gained currency, and was accepted as the normal English name of the country. Current Manchurian histography refers to Qing as "Manchurian China", and also refer to the Yuan Dynasty as "Mongolian China".

A few Western academics suggested renaming the English name of the country due to its associations with imperialism; in China, Manchuria is always referred to as the "Manchu Republic" to avoid the usage of the word Manchukuo in Chinese.

History

Main article: History of Manchuria

Early History

Ancient Manchuria had been home for several ethnic groups such as the Evenki, the Nanai, the Ulchs, the Khitans, and the Jurchens. During various points in Manchu history, several Chinese dynasties controlled portions of Manchuria, usually in the coasts, and the Chinese also set up tributary relations with the tribes. The Korean kingdoms of Goguryeo, Gojoseon, and Buyeo also controlled parts of Manchuria. Finnish scientist Juha Janhunen also claimed that the Korean kingdoms might have substantial Tungusic-speaking minorities and even have an Tungusic elite.

Within the 10th to 11th century, the Khitans of Inner Mongolia and Manchuria forged a state called the Liao, controlling Northern China and Manchuria, forcing the ancestors of the Jurchens into tributary status. The Khitan empire were the first state to control the entire modern region of Manchuria.

[[File:Yuan dynasty and Manchuria.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Mongol Yuan province of Liaoyang (Liyoo-a); the province included northern Korea [[File:Qing Empire circa 1820 EN.svg|thumb|250px|The Manchu Qing dynasty circa 1820. Manchuria is the homeland of the Jurchens and later Manchus.]]

Medieval History

A 12th-century Jurchen stone tortoise in today's Ussuriysk

By the early 12th century, the Jurchens, one of the tributary peoples of the Khitans rebelled against Liao rule and replaced them with the Jin Dynasty. Numerous campaigns against the Song Chinese enabled the Jurchen to capture territory in northern China. The Jurchens were then conquered in turn by the Mongolian Yuan Dynasty. During Mongolian rule, Manchuria was named as Liaoyang along with northern Korea.In 1375, Naghachu, a Mongolian Yuan official in Liaoyang, attempted to conquer the rest of the Ming-held Liaodong peninsula, but the Ming defeated his forces and surrendered. The Ming Emperor Yongle consolidated control of the Manchurian lands, creating the Nurgan Regional Military Commission.

Chafing from Ming control, the Jianzhou Jurchens under Nurhaci started to consolidate their control of the region starting in the 1580s. They had to contend with the Evenki-Daur alliance led by Bombogor, finally killing him in 1640 and incorporating his remaining troops to the Eight Banners, a new Jurchen military organization. During this period, Chinese cultural influence seeped through the Manchurian region and various ethnic groups living there.

In 1634, Hung Taiji renamed the Jurchens into Manchus, citing the former name as now derogatory.

A Jurchen man hunting from his horse, from a 15th-century ink and color painting on silk

In 1644, the Ming dynasty was overthrown by peasant rebels. Ming general Wu Sangui called the Manchu leadership to assist in seizing Beijing. Using the opportunity of the chaos, the Manchus overthrew the nascent Shun Dynasty and established the Qing Dynasty. It was estimated that twenty-five million people died as a result of the conquest.

Qing Empire

Nurhaci, founder of the Manchu nation and the Qing Dynasty

After the Manchus conquered China, they built the Willow Palisade to control Chinese emigration to the ethnic Manchurian lands. Only ethnic Manchurians and Chinese bannermen are allowed to settle in Giring and Sahaliyan Ula.

During their reign over China, the Manchurians called their state "Dulimbai Gurun" and considered their state to be China. Their definition of China also included Manchuria, Tibet, and Mongolia as a whole, and the "Chinese language" also refered to Manchu and Mongolian. The Treaty of Nerchinsk stated that the Manchurian lands are considered part of China.

During the Kangxi and Qianlong eras, Manchurian-ruled China was said to have experienced a golden age. However, many scholars dispute the idea, claiming that literary censorship and political supremacy of the Eight Banners actually hindered its promise.

As the centuries passed by, Han Chinese both legally and illegally settled to Manchuria, as Manchu banner landlords wanted Chinese labor and pay rent for their land to grow grain. 500,000 hectares of land were cultivated by Han Chinese by the end of the eighteenth century and about 203,583 hectares of Banner-owned lands were inhabited by Han, about 80% in estimate. Many of these Chinese settlers were from North China and were introduced to settle on the Liyoo river to restore the land to cultivation. Farmlands were also created by illegal Chinese settlers along with tenants. Although the Qing Emperor Hungli repeated issued edicts against Chinese settlement in Manchuria, he later tolerated them as many of the Chinese settlers were suffering from drought. . Chinese settlers even claimed land even from the Imperial estates. To increase the revenue, the Daoguang Emperor even allowed sale of Banner land to Chinese settlers. Sinicization was accelerated that eighty percent of the population were Chinese.

Penetration of Russian influence increased in the early 19th century. After the humiliating loss of the Opium Wars, the Qing were forced to cede eastern parts of Manchuria to Russia in 1857 to 1860 during the Peking Convention. However, Russian-Qing disputes failed to end, as Russia in 1868 tried to expel Chinese prospectors around Vladivostok. Attempts by Russia to occupy Askold Island, supposedly ceded but remained occupied by Chinese, only bore fruit in 1892 when they finally managed to retake the island.

In the 1860s, the Qing were beset by weakened economic power, and half-hearted reforms such as the Self-Strengthening Movement failed to address the decline. Foreign companies such as the Swire Group and Jardines of the United Kingdom, based in Hong Kong, set up offices in Manchurian cities for trade purposes. From its opening in 1865 to 1891, Manchuria exported soybeans, soybean oil, wild silk, and ginseng. It imported in turn opium, cotton, and consumer goods. Girin Machinery Bureau, constructed in 1882, was the first factory built in Manchuria. It went on to become a machine shop during Japanese rule for Mantetsu rule and a coinage during the communist era.

In 1896, Tsarist Russia obtained the privilege of building a railway in Manchuria through the "Sino-Russian Treaty", and in 1898 obtained a lease in Port Arthur (now Dalin). During this period Japan also gradually strengthened its expansion to Manchuria. In 1904, the Russo-Japanese War broke out and Russia was defeated and forced cede its sphere of influence to Japan. Since then, Japan, Russia and China have all accelerated the development of Manchuria. In 1907, the Qing court converted the Manchurian territories into full provinces. Japan established the South Manchuria Railway Company in 1906 to implement a colonial strategy in Manchuria and encouraged Korean immigration. In 1909, Japan gave back to China Yeonbyeon in exchange for concessions.

An outbreak of bubonic plague occured in Manchuria in 1910-11, killing about 50,000 to 60,000 people in Harbin alone. While the plague was contained, the high number of deaths forced Chinese and Manchurian officials to initiate stricter health measures, and shortly after the overthrow of the Qing, the North Manchurian Plague Office was established to combat outbreaks.

By 1900, the Qing Empire is in collapse due to the Boxer Rebellion and numerous failed uprisings such as the Taiping Rebellion. Many ethnic Manchurians supported the Boxer Uprising;, Ronglu and Yisian were prominent Manchu commanders on the side of the Qing during the uprising. A failed reform by Emperor Dzaitian in 1898 was seen by conservatives led Yehenala Shinjen as usurpation of power and put end to such reforms. However, the Boxer Rebellion forced Shinjen to adopt reforms herself.Although even more far-reaching than Dzai Tiyan's reforms, they were too little too late for the dynasty. Dzai Tiyan died in November 14, and Shinjen the next day, and reports suggest that the latter or Yuan Shikai poisoned the Emperor out of spite. The last Emperor of Qing, Pui, was installed, with Zaifeng as regent as the new monarch was only two. In April 1911, Dzai Feng created a new cabinet staffed by members of the Imperial family, angering both conservative and reformist officials alike for such usurpation of royal power.

Republic of China Era

In October 10, 1911, an uprising called the Wuchang Uprising swept toards China. Yuan Shikai, trying to salvage the situation, eventually caused the abdication of Puyi in February 1912 and the proclamation of the Chinese Republic. However, there were still attempts to re-instate the Qing, like the Manchu restoration in 1917 led by Qing loyalist Zhang Xun, which was dispersed by the Republican Chinese troops.

Meanwhile in Manchuria, a rebellion by Wang Cengbin over the maltreatment of Manchus in China proper caused him and other Manchus to rally for Manchu independence. They defeated attempts by Zhao Erxun and Zhang Zuolin to defeat attempts for Manchurian independence. However, Zhang Zuolin entrenched himself south of the Willow Palisade thanks to Japanese intervention, correctly assessing that Wang Cengbin had plans to conquer the Kwantung Territory.Wang Cengbin also considered seizing Jehol and Chahar provinces, but was dissuaded by both Russia and Japan and kept their countries' respective railroads open and secure during the term of his rule.

Independent Manchuria

Wang Cengbin, de-facto leader of Manchuria.

Wang Cengbin was a former Qing Dynasty general of Manchu descent.After being cashiered by the new Republican government in 1911 due to accusations of careerism, he fled to Manchuria in Harbin and successfully convinced the garrisoned troops to defect for a new Manchu nation, claiming that the new Chinese Republic discriminates against Manchus and like the Mongols and the Tibetans, the Manchus must also declare independence. In December 2, 1913, the Manchu Commonwealth was created with Russian help; however, while he suceeded in forcing Zhang Zuolin's troops to defect to his side, by the time he was on a position to complete the conquest, Japanese and Fengtian troops barricaded the Willow Palisade. Seeing obligation to follow the Russian sphere of influence in Manchuria and to further consolidate his base, Wang Cengbin did not invade Fengtian. Due to Russian advice, Wang Cengbin created a new policy where Manchuria under his control would be weaned away from Chinese cultural influence, although as reflected in the name, he promised equality between Manchus and Han and that his re-Manchurianization policy are aimed at the ethnic Manchu minority; he intended it for the Chinese minority to learn Manchu as a second language. After spending some time with Sibe visitors from the former Sinkiang, Wang Cengbin declared his intent to revive the Manchu language in 1915; as a result, he hired Manchu teachers from the remaining Manchu-speaking villages, training the newest generation of Manchu speakers. He founded the Manju Guruni Kemhulen or the Manchurian National Association as his own political party. Although a Qing monarchist, he criticized the Aisin Gioro for putting Chinese interests over Manchuria's and forced Puwei's Qing Royalist Party to adopt a Manchuria-centric ideology. The Japanese tolerated and encouraged the Manchu language revival to eventually reduce Chinese influence and be more suspectible to Japanese influence. However, despite his efforts, only 23 percent of the population learned Manchu by 1932. While Manchuria is on all aspects, an independent state on the vein of Outer Mongolia and Tibet, many still consider Manchuria a Chinese warlord domain due to its majority population still identifying as Chinese.

Chinese Reconquest of Manchuria

Angered by Wang Cengbin's alleged role in the assassination of his father in Fengtian, Zhang Zuolin pledged alliance to the KMT and helped defeat Wang Chengbin's troops in the Manchu-Chinese War of 1929. However, Zhang Zuolin even after capturing Wang Chengbin, promised to continue protecting the Manchu language and had the teaching of Manchu continued as before. While this placated some of the Manchu minority, who later began speaking Manchu again after the language revival, other Manchus and Chinese fear the influence of the KMT government could erode their gains in cultural autonomy. As a result, Aisingioro Puwei, the head of the Qing royalists, requested Japanese intervention against the Chinese.

Manchukuo

Emperor Puyi, also known as Kangde.

In 1931, the Japanese forces in Manchuria seized the country from the Chinese, creating Manchukuo a year later. The Japanese installed Pu Yi as leader, while effective leadeship is in the hands of the Japanese advisers. Several anti-Japanese Manchurian commanders such as Tungia Linge joined the anti-Japanese resistance, although many were killed or later exiled. Manchuria was used as a buffer state between Japan and the Soviet Union as both countries clashed twice in 1938 and 1939. Manchu language education was intensified under Japanese control, to extirpate the Chinese language in Manchuria, alongside teaching the Japanese language. It was said that Japanese control of the resources in Manchuria enabled it to execute the Pearl Harbor bombing and initate a conquest of Southeast Asia and the Western Pacific.

Several anti-Japanse Manchu leaders like Joogia Sangsi, Foimo Meyen, and Yangia Ordo fled to the Soviet Union and Mongolia and established a government in exile. Although at first they advocated that Manchuria return as an autonomous region in a future Communist China, a rift between Jogia Sangsi and the Yanan leadership was only temporarily healed and Jogia decided to separate and rename his Northeast Anti-Japanese Army into the Manchurian People's Army and finally ordered Manchurian nationalism under communist rule as important as anti-Japanese resistance.Feeling that Manchukuo imposed Japanization and both the KMT and the Chinese Communists want Sinicization, Jogia made the decision to use Manchu as the working language of the Manchurian exiles afterwards.

A coup by secretly communist Manchukuo officers during the Soviet invasion of Manchuria declared the establishment of the Manchu Republic. This was abetted by Jang Sioming, Jang Sioliang's brother, who secretly fled from Mainland China. His sincerity in Manchu independence was doubted because he planned to cede Manchuria back to either Mao or Chiang's China in exchange of autonomy. However, in September 1, 1945, he had to cede power to Jogia Sangsi, who secretly promised that Manchuria would never be sold out to either Chiang or Mao, in exchange of Sioming returning to China unharmed. The Kwantung Army, already battered by the atomic bombing of Japan, surrendered in droves. Pu Yi escaped to Japan, but was captured by the Americans and made witness to the Tokyo War Crimes Tribunal. He was imprisoned by the Soviet Union until released to live his exile to Japan. The majority of the Japanese settlers were either deported back to Japan or were forcibly conscripted and assimilated as Manchus by Jogia. Many of them only were able to return in the 1960s.

Manchu People's Republic

Main article: People's Republic of Manchuria

Jogia Sangsi, early Manchurian People's Republic leader.

During the final days of World War II, the Soviet Army in the Far East attacked Manchuria and together with the Mongolian People's Army and the Manchurian People's Army, and occupied the former state of Manchukuo. It was said that the Chinese refusal to hand over Inner Mongolia to the Mongolian People's Republic spurred the Mongolian dictator Choibalsan to declare that the former Manchukuo should be handed over to Jogia's government in exile. Chiang Kai-shek replied that both Mongolia and Manchuria should remain under Chinese control, which angered Jogia. Tensions flared, the Nationalist and Communist Chinese were prohibited by the MPA and Mongolian forces from occupying the former Manchukuo. .With the former Manchukuo Army soldiers being integrated to the Manchurian People's Army, Manchuria declared independence in February 1, 1946.

Soviet troops in Harbin, 1946

In exchange of recognizing independence, the Chinese Communist Party forced Manchuria to accept Gualgia Acabun, an ethnic Manchurian, as President, as well as Gao Gang as Chinese ambassador, in exchange of independence. However, Gualgia died in 1947, and Gao Gang had at point had eased himself with the main Manchu leadership headed by Jogia Sangsi and Jo Dulimba as figurehead President.

During the Korean War, Jogia aided the Korean communist Kim Il-Sung, going as far as sending troops.

However, the high cost of the war and the failure of the invasion due to UN intervention had created strains between every sector of the Manchurian leadership, and Jogia once considered resignation; he was retained at the request of the communist party. Yangia Ordo and Jo Dulimba were removed for disagreeing with Jogia about the conduct of the war; Jogia formally became president in 1956. Jangia and Jo both left for China, never returning to Manchuria again. Jo Dulimba reverted to his former name of Zhou Baozhong, later became governor of Yunnan, while Yangia Ordo went back to Yenan province, re-uniting with his family there and dying in 1965.

Military parade in Mukden,1959. The Chinese language is used alongside Manchu until the Sino-Soviet Split forced Manchuria to encourage the spread of the Manchu language.

Jogia initiated the so-called "Rehe Protocol" in 1964, as a response to China's more aggressive stances and as a response to China's nuclear test. It aims to usurp China's place as the leading Asian communist power by using internal reform within party and government, publicly allying with the Soviet Union but at the same time maintaining its independence, and with prime minister Ligia Sabintu, broadened their relations with the West. Thousands of pro-unification PRC Manchurians were jailed or executed. Jogia while publicly reforming the internal structure of the government, remained powerful. Although an "orthodox" Marxist-Leninist, he was also concerned at Chinese and North Korean attempts at encroaching in Manchurian territory.

In 1956, Manchuria started a nuclear program, intended at first for peaceful purposes. However, the government also believed that Manchuria would require to utilize the nuclear program to create its nuclear arsenal. Soviet documents revealed that the rationale is to prevent both American and Chinese aggression. Seeing Manchuria as too big for the Soviet Union to be brought into full control, Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev tacitly allowed Manchuria to develop its own nuclear weapons, who is suffering with the fallout from Mao Zedong during the Sino-Soviet Split.

In 1970, Jogia died, replaced by Foimo Meyen as President and Sunja Minggu, Jogia's preferred successor, as General Secretary. Sakda had to inherit the worsening border clashes within China due to the Cultural Revolution; already, Jogia was denounced in China for his pro-Soviet stance, and China reiterated that the majority of Manchuria's population are still Chinese. Chinese Red Guards trying to infiltrate Manchuria were shot, often fatally, by Manchurian border guards. Soviet forces in Dalin and the Chinese-Manchurian border also engaged in border clashes.

Of all the Soviet satellite states, Manchuria was one of the few that actually requested for Soviet and Eastern Bloc immigrants to upset the balance of the still-Chinese majority population. About 1 million immigrants from the Eastern Bloc emigrated to Manchuria, while simultaneously encouraged Han Chinese emigration to the PRC in exchange of ethnic Manchurians by the PRC until the emigration stopped in 1961 due to fears that ethnic Chinese will emigrate back to Manchuria. Perhaps due to the massive territorial losses incurred, the nuclear weapons program, activated in 1972 was to serve as a method to not to be sidelined in the Sino-Soviet split.

Manchuria was denied by the Republic of China from admission into the United Nations due to its claims, even though it acquiesced in its admission of Mongolia in 1961. (see China and the United Nations) In 1971, the People's Republic in an overture to improve Manchuria-China relations, approved of Manchuria's entry to the United Nations.

Modern Manchuria

Protesters against the communist regime in 1990

By 1990, Manchuria's economy started to decline; many people felt that the communists have long outlasted them. Chinese exiles after the 1989 protests aided the pro-democracy protesters. After much hesitation, Ligia Sabintu resigned and a more moderate leader, Dong Mutem, took over. A new constitution was signed in March 1991, formally abolishing communist rule.

After the fall of Communist regime in Manchuria, the government in Cacon feared that China will attempt to overthrow their government by force, as Chinese people who fled the Tiananmen Square protests in 1989 were allowed refuge by the Manchurian government.

The economy grew again after the change of government, but the fallout in sales of weaponry to such states such as Saddam-era Iraq and Rwanda caused Dong Mutem, a Social Democrat, to lose to Gualgia Bayan, a former Manchu Communist Party stalwart now becoming the leader of the opposition People's Democratic Party, a party composed of former Communist Party officials. Gualgia accused Dong of being a "sellout", and he sought to repair Manchuria's economy using methods he claims to have borrowed from Finland and Korea during the rule of Park Chung-hee.

Gualgia was succeeded as President by Niohur Maoseng, also a People's Democratic Party member. While he continued Gualgia's economic reforms, his credibility plummeted due to his numerous political scandals, his attempt to repair relations with China, and his public criticism of the US War in Iraq. While he regained his popularity by negotating a new treaty with Korea, he was unable to secure a second term.Cengia Dasan of the National Association Party, defeated Gualgia in the next election. He then used his power to arrest the decline of the factories despite Manchuria's economic growth, concentrating on increasing petroleum and automotive exports and used what he termed "infrastructure diplomacy" in Africa, Latin America, and Southeast Asia. His efforts was hampered by the economic crisis in 2008, but he made a comeback a year later and was poised to be the first Manchurian president to get re-elected, in 2010. However, his second term was marred with another series of scandals, this time involving China and its investment in the Manchurian economy, and after a series of protests in 2012, requested a referendum which was granted. Lin Boljon, his Prime Minister, defected from the National Association and joined the Social Democrats, and easily won the election. He repaired the damaged relations with Korea and Japan and took a pro-United States position in political affairs. Lin never stood for re-election again due to cancer; he died in 2016 seven months before he could finish his term. A coup de etat by some members of the National Assembly, ostensibly to install their preferred successor against Lin's wishes, were suppressed in June 3, 2016. Liala Tuabun took over the presidency and tried to stand for election in 2017 but was defeated by Baigia Dorolon of the People's Democratic Party. He took a neutral stand in political affairs and dealt with the Covid-19 Pandemic in his country. His administration was criticized for not doing enough to mitigate the spread of the virus.

Government and Politics

Main article: Politics of Manchuria
Main article:Government of Manchuria

Baigia Dorolon President

Manchuria is officially a unitary semi-presidential parliamentary state with a bi-cameral legislature.The non-governmental organization Freedom House consider Manchuria as Partially Free.

National Assembly Building.

The President (Beile) is the recognized head of state of the country; he is elected by the populace for a four-year term renewable only once in a re-election. He appoints the Prime Minister (Ejen) who heads the cabinet. The so-called "Jogia's Mansion", the former Kwantung Army commander's mansion during the Manchukuo era, was converted for the President's personal residence with the Salt Palace used as official residence.

The Constitution of Manchuria serves as the supreme law of Manchuria, which established clear separation of powers. However, for the most part of its history Manchuria was under autocratic rule. From 1945 Manchuria was ruled as a Communist single-party state that ended in 1991 following the Sorghum Revolution. In 1990 Manchuria adopted its current constitution, becoming a liberal democracy. Nevertheless former members of the Communist Party of Manchuria are still prominent and active in politics.

The legislature is called the National Assembly or Gurungge Hebeiba; it sits in the General Affairs State Council building. It is composed of the Senate (Dergi Hebeiba), and the House of representatives (Fejergi Hebeiba). The Senate is composed of 101 members, the House of Representatives is composed of 400 members. Each senator is to serve for four years and can be re-elected once; its main duty is to improve the laws of the House of Representatives and keeps the latter in check. Each member of the House of Representatives can be elected for three years and can be re-elected once; it proposes and drafts new laws for the country.

Foreign Relations

Main article: Foreign Relations of Manchuria

Manchuria's foreign affairs is conducted by its Foreign Ministry. Its key foreign policy is to retain its relative military power among other Asian nations, especially that along with China, Taiwan, Korea, and Japan, possess nuclear weapons in the Eastern Asia region. It pursues an independent foreign policy but has been notably close to Russia since 1945. However, Manchuria also pursued warmer relations with Western countries particularly the United States.

Manchuria is a member of several organisations such as the United Nations, G-20, WTO, APEC, IMF, WBG, ADB, East Asia Summit, ACD, PEMSEA, Non-Aligned Movement, Group of 15, and the Group of 24.

Li Foson, Manchurian ambassador to Russia, with then President Dmitri Medvedev in Moscow in 2009.

During the Cold War, it traditionally supported the Soviet Union until its demise in 1991. During the Manchukuo era, the Soviets opened consulates in Harbin. After the war, the Soviet Union upgraded their full relations with the new Manchurian communist government. Manchuria continues its relations with Russia. Manchuria under Lin Boljon criticized the Russian invasion of Ukraine as "extreme over-reach of people's aspirations". During the Russian Invasion of Ukraine in 2022, Baigiya Dorolon said that the Russian Invasion of Ukraine should be solved as peacefully as possible; his government refrained from joining sanctions against Russia. Manchuria has amicable relations with all the other post-Soviet republics.

Manchuria also has traditionally warm relations with India, as Manchuria provided material for India's nuclear weapons program.

As Mongolia second-largest trading partner, Manchuria enjoy excellent relations with its western neighbor. There are issues being tackled including emigration of Mongols to Manchuria.

Of all the countries in Western Europe, Manchuria is said to be closest to Finland, and Manchurian economic planners took cues to Finland's economic model. Many Manchurian products sold to Europe were sold first to Finland. Some of modern Manchurian artists' first exposure to western arts are through Finnish channels. The largest non-native minority in Finland are Manchurians.

Manchuria's relations with the West increased considerably. There is steady immigration to the United States, but as these emigrants tend to be Chinese-speaking Manchurians, until recently they are considered as Chinese.

Manchuria both maintains relations with Israel and the State of Palestine as well as the Sahrawi Democratic Republic. Although it supported the Palestinian struggle like other East Bloc countries, it is one of the few countries that still maintained relationship with Israel during that period.

It was with its immediate neighbors that Manchuria has difficulty in maintaining good relations. Mao's acceptance of Manchurian independence was said by him to have been made with "great reluctance." Even though Manchuria and China fought on the same side during the Korean War, China tried and failed to use the war as leverage to re-incorporate Manchuria. During the Sino-Soviet Split and the Cultural Revolution, Manchuria had to fend off border incursions by China with Soviet help. Only after the Sino-Vietnamese War and China's market reforms did Manchuria-Chinese relations improve, and even then, the defeat of the former Democratic People's Republic of Korea was "never forgotten" by Beijing and Manchuria's role with it was used as a sticking point.

Manchurian-Korean relations are friendly despite the Korean War and subsequent border clashes. Sticking points include how to address war reparations with each other and claims by Manchurian historians that Korea deliberatedly whitewashed the history of Goguryeo to erase the Manchurian origin of the kingdom, causing protests and counter-protests from both sides. . As of 2018, Manchuria is now Korea's largest trading partner, accounting for 46 percent of the trade.

While Manchurian-Japanese relations are now better than before, their background was also complex. Left-leaning Manchurian politicians occasionally request compensation from Japan, in which Japan said it already made apologies. Japanese politicians in turn decry Manchuria's sidestepping in its roles in anti-Japanese pogroms in 1946. Nevertheless, Japanese-Manchurian relations are cordial and compared in the past, now done in an equal basis; anime and manga are regularly being shown in Manchuria with a large fandom in Manchuria itself, and Manchurian light novels and visual novels recently provide material for new Japanese animated series. Many Japanese people retire to Manchuria and younger Manchurians emigrate to Japan. 30% of the Chinese diaspora in Japan are of Manchurian origin.

Military

Main article: Military of Manchuria

Manchurian Su-27.

Manchurian tanks in a military parade.

The Manchurian Armed Forces is the second largest armed forces in East Asia after China.

The Armed Forces is composed an army, navy, and air force. The MAF has the second largest army in East Asia in active forces (1,228,300), though its paramilitary forces called the Green Standard Corps (9,320,000) when added make it the largest military force in the world.

In addition, a separate armed force called the National Guard directly reports to the President, and serves as his bodyguard. The National Guard is focused on unconventional warfare.

The President of Manchuria is the commander-in-chief of the MAF, which answers to the Ministry of Defence. The Chief of Staff of the Manchurian Armed Forces is a professional soldier with a four-star rank. The military's influence in civilian life had been shaped by its role by throwing its support behind the protesters in the 1991 anti-communist revolution.

The predecessor to the MAF, the Manchurian People's Army, primarily received military equipment from the Soviet Union. The MAF's foreign weaponry are largely Soviet or Eastern Bloc in design if not in manufacture, and many of the weaponry made in Manchuria are of East Bloc heritage as well. Recently Manchuria has started purchasing weaponry and equipment from Germany and Japan.

Manchuria possesses nuclear weapons. The nuclear weapons program were built in the 1960s as an anti-Chinese deterrent, and after the fall of the Soviet Union, it was rumored that the Soviets actually sold some of their newer weapons to Manchuria in exchange not to sell Manchurian weapons to countries Russia disapproved of. Manchuria did not sign the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons; it also signed the Chemical Weapons Convention in 1987 but did not ratify it.

Patriotic Civil Service is the term called for conscription; all males at the age of 18 are considered recruits; people who had disabilities are granted honorary ranks but are only allowed to participate in civil relations. Refusal to serve is considered a capital punishment during early communist times which meant automatic death penalty; this was reduced and conscientious objectors were sentenced to jail which were still criticized. After the fall of the Communist system, conscientious objection is no longer punished; "equivalent civilian work" or heavier taxation were used instead.

Law Enforcement and Intelligence

Main article: Giarici Quaren
Main article: Law of Manchuria

See also: Judiciary of Manchuria

Manchuria has a legal system inherited from Russian, Japanese, Prussian, and Chinese models. Judiciary appeals are handled by the Supreme Court, which serves as the highest court of appeal.

Internal security is provided by the Giarici Quaren. The Foreign Intelligence Agency is called the Elh Qarmetem Yamun, or the Security Bureau, being headed by the Minister of State Security, and the domestic intelligence service is called the Baiicamb Yamun, or the Investigation Bureau, subordinated under the Ministry of Justice.All of the security services are routinely criticized for their lack of oversight, police brutality, and excessive use of force, but were known to be very effective in counter-terrorist and counter-intelligence activities. Crimes in Manchuria are relatively lower than in the recent years, after an uptick in the 1990s and early 2000s, and involved bulglary, money-laundering, and drug-trafficking.

Geography

Main article: Geography of Manchuria

Hailan Bira River near Ninguta City

The territory within Manchuria lies within the northern part of the North China craton, which is an area of Precambrian rocks over 100 million hectares. Manchuria is traditionally divided into three geographic regions: the Hingan mountains, the Manchurian plain, and the Golmin Shanggiyan Mountain region. The Hinggan mountains are a Jurassic mountain range, stemming from a collision between the North China craton and the Siberian craton.

Manchuria was never glaciated during the Quartenary period, but the fertile soils of the lower-lying areas indicate movements from the western mountains in Asia such as the Himalayas and the Tien Shan mountains, and also the Gobi and Taklamakan deserts.

In the middle between the Hinggan Range and the Ğolmin Xiangian Mountains is the Manchurian plain, also known as the Dongbei plain in Chinese or the Sungari-Liyoo Plain, with the Sungari, Non, and Lioha Rivers running through the plain. Here is the area where widespread cultivation takes place. Majority of the soybean, millet, wheat, and rice are being planted in this region. The area is connected to the North China plain to the south-west.

Climate

Manchuria's climate provided contrasts, with very Arctic-like winters and hot, tropical summers. The position of Manchuria between the Eurasian landmass and the Pacific Ocean contribute to this climactic situation. Due to being in the border region of Eurasia and the Pacific, the climate triggers monsoonal wind reversal.

Climate map of Manchuria

The dominant climate type according the Koppen scheme is the hot-summer dry continental, especially in the plain. In the far north, dry-winter subarctic climate prevails, and in the west, pockets of cold semiarid climate persist.

Temperatures during the winter are usually cold due to the Siberian High, ranging from -5 °C (23°F) to -30°C (-22°F), depending on latitude, which is considered colder when further north. The Siberian winds are relatively dry, however, and the snow is rarely heavy. Thus Manchuria, despite being colder than North America, never glaciated due to the strong westerly winds from western Eurasia.

In contrast, during summer, moist, southwestern winds bring thunderstorms, usually bringing 400 to 1150 mm of rain depending on the area; the area around the east receives more rain.

Flora

Manchuria has a varied flora and fauna. The Mongolian-Manchurian Grassland, for example, are dominated by grasslands like the feather grass. It was reported that there are eighty-five native Manchurian species of flowers and plants.In central Manchuria, the vegetation is prairie grass in the western side, and mostly mixed conifer and deciduous forests on the eastern side.In the north, cultivation also thinned down forests there; the majority of the trees are poplars.Herbaceous plants, pasteurizable grass, and sorghum and found there.The trees that are commonly found in Manchuria are conifers like the Korean pine (Pinus koraiensis), Manchurian fir (Abies holophylla), and Siberian spruce (Picea obovata), and also deciduous trees like the Mongolian oak (Quercus mongolica), Manchurian ash (Fraxinus mandschurica), Amur linden (Tilia amurensis), and Manchurian elm (Ulmus laciniata). The Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris) can also be found in Central Manchuria.

Fauna

Manchuria is also home to varied fauna such as the Manchurian tiger, though the World Wildlife Fund fears that the protection of these wildlife is limited at best. In the southern flatlands, wild animals are scarce, except for rodents. Locusts are considered destructive pests. In contrast, northern Manchuria has abundance of wildlife. During the Manchukuo era, fur trade was common and extended in the Communist era; fear of extinction and efforts by wildlife activists and the government stemmed most extinctions.

Administative Divisions

Main article: Administrative divisions of Manchuria

Hulunbuir

Hinggan

Ħalħun Ǧol

Saħalin Ula

Afꝁai Aliang

Usuri Ula

Dalin

Mukden

Yalu Ula

Sungari Ula

Harbin

Non Ula

Cacon

Girin

Aidan

Clickable map of Manchurian provinces.

Manchuria is organized into provinces (gol, гол), subdivided into districts (guusa, гөса) and towns (sum, сум). Certain cities such as the capital Cacon, Harbin, Mukden, and Dalin are termed "Special Cities"; they are considered to be metropolitan provinces.

#	Name	Type	Flag	Administrative Seat	Transliteration (Traditional)	Transliteration (Cyrillic)	Area (km2)	Population (2020) estimate
1	Cacon	(special city)		none	ᠴᠠᠴᠣᠨ	Чачон	2579.44	4,832,448
2	Harbin	(special city)	File:Flag of the City of Harbin.svg	none	ᡥᠠᠯᠪᡳᠨ	Харбин	2056.70	3,974,502
3	Dalin	(special city)		none	ᡩᠠᠯᡳᠨ	Далин	3055.58	5,106,719
4	Mukden	(special city)		none	ᠮᡠᡴᡩᡝᠨ	Мукден	3470.82	7,490,125
5	Afꝁai Aliang	province		Isang Ǧasen	ᠠᠪᡴᠠᡳ ᠠᠯᡳᠶᠠᠩᡤᠠ	Афқаи Алиаң	91,751.71	21,799,287
6	Ħalħun Ǧol	province		Erdem de Alyh	᠊ᡵᡩᡝᠮᡠ ᠪᡝ ᠠᠯᡳᡥᠠᠠᠪᡴᠠᡳ	Ҳалҳун Ғол	83,571.95	7,543,777
7	Girin	province		Girin Hoton	ᡤᡳᡵᡳᠨ	Гирин	72,624.91	9,823,819
8	Sungari Ula	province			ᠰᡠᠨᡤᠠᡵᡳ ᡠᠯᠠ	Сунгари Ула	2,424.07	9,752,500
9	Non Ula	province		Cicigar	ᠨᠣᠨ ᡠᠯᠠ	Нон Ула	116,109.53	8,869,372
10	Usuri Ula	province		Giamusi	ᠠᠴᠠᠨ ᠨᡠᠯᠠ	Усури Ула	126,837.11	8,449,303
11	Saħalin Ula	province		Aigun	ᠰᠠᡥᠠᠯᡳᠶᠠᠨ ᡠᠯᠠ	Саҳалин Ула	115,344.23	562,941
12	Hinggan	province		Jerim	ᡥᡳᠩᡤᠠᠨ	Хиңган	166,371.95	5,335,812
13	Hulunbuir	province		Hailar	ᠬᠥᠯᠥᠨ ᠪᠤᠶᠢᠷ	Хулунбуир	252,777.38	2,242,875
14	Aidan	province		Aidan Hoton	ᠠᡳᡩᠠᠨ	Аидан	43,329.34	1,941,700
15	Yalu Ula	province		Yalu Hoton	ᠶᠠᠯᡠ ᡠᠯᠠ	Ялу Ула	69,049.68	8,256,551

Economy

Main article: Economy of Manchuria

Manchuria has a economy that is measured to be the 15th largest in the world by 2018, at US$989 billion. Manchuria has been one of the strongest in the Asia-Pacific region and is considered an honorary Asian Tiger. The service industry is smaller compared to the other East Asian countries. Manchuria was the richest East-aligned country in Asia and was second only to Japan.Even after the fall of communism, Manchuria is the richest former communist country when measured by its GDP per capita.

During the Qing period, Manchuria was one of the most industrialized parts of the dynasty, and its coal deposits made it a highly-urbanized country. During the Manchukuo era until 1945, Manchuria was considered more industrialized than China and even Japan; Japanese investment has expanded Manchukuo industries. Indeed, China refers to Manchuria as the "Eldest Son" of industrialized communist countries in Asia. After the fall of communism, Manchuria struggled to keep its industry as it stagnated, prompting the government to diversify its economic structure.

In 1997, Manchuria's GDP stalled to the level it achieved in 1990, and considered a "national scandal". Immediately, Prime Minister Tian Fengsan of the People's Party then installed new economic policies and copied the economic system instituted by Japan in the 1950s and South Korea in the 1960s. Tiyan threatened to close un-productive companies and he did with a few; as the enterpreneurial pool is still limited, Tiyan encouraged businessmen to set up their own businesses to augment the economy. Manchuria managed to keep the majority of its labor-intensive manufacturing from being transferred to the neighboring PRC keeping unemployment at bay, although pay was low compared to Korea. There are calls for the government to abandon state-owned enterprises altogether as they are a remnant of communist and Manchukuo era policies.It was said that Manchuria's explosive economic growth after the Financial Crisis was due to Tiyan's reforms; however, inequality in income increased. It's petroleum and shale oil industry, enabled Manchuria to increase its economic clout; also, its economic penetration to Eastern European markets and West Asian markets had been credited to Manchuria's rise as one of the world's largest economies.

Manchuria's economy still remains industrial, with steel, automotive, rail, aircraft, and shipbuilding industry predominating. Manchuria also has coal and petroleum industry and has several petroleum refinery facilities. The appliance industry has also been booming since the 2010s, and Manchuria's software production has been ramped up since 2005.

Despite decline of agriculture due to industrialization, it remains important. Fishing is important on the coasts and rivers, while farming is dominant in the south with corn, wheat, soya, and sorghum commonly cultivated there. Animal husbandry is also common, with cattle, pigs, horses, and sheep being raised.

Agriculture

Although no longer used for farming, mules are sometimes still used in the countryside.

Agriculture still plays a vital role in the Manchurian economy. In the northern cold regions, corn, wheat, sorghum, flax, potatoes and sunflowers are grown. In the center, soybeans are planted; Manchuria is the chief source for US soybean. In the east, rice is grown especially in Aidan and Yalu, whereas in the south, corn, sorghum, cotton, and soybeans are cultivated. The south is also where Manchuria's fruit industry dominate. Herding is also common, with pigs, cows, and horses predominating; the dairy industry also supplies all of Manchuria's yearly needs. Sheep farming is common in the western provinces.

Manchuria's agriculture has undergone a shift after 1990. Prior to 1990, all farming are done within collective farms confiscated from the Manchukuo government and Japanese companies, with 50 families inhabiting a farm called veilesy achilahan. The collective farms have moderate to high production rates but needed subsidies for technology. In 1990 collective farms remain but as their subsidies were cut off, many failed and shuttered. Conversion to co-operative farms alleviated the situation. Private plots, de-facto recognized by 1971, were legalized by 1990.

Currency

The currency is known as the Muheren, divided into 100 fun. It is issued by the Central Bank of Manchuria. Manchuria has the world's 8th largest foreign exchange reserves.

Industry

Manchuria's industry has developed considerably, both light and heavy industrial products. In the late 1990s, Manchuria attempted to curry foreign investment, including those of Korea, China, and Japan, and Western countries, and there was a boom in manufacturing, however, Russian and East European industries took up the bulk of foreign investment. However, it is still a major production base for heavy industry. Many companies have origins in the Manchukuo era and nationalized by communists; these state-owned industries control 25 percent of the economy. Others are dominated by so-called "Ulin I Ejeltu" or "Wealth clans", analogous to the Zaibatsu/Keiretsu of Japan and the Chaebol of Korea.

In 2012, President Lin Boljon initated the Revitalize Manchuria program to enhance the industrial situation in the country. While it saw moderate success, Lio's untimely death and political infighting hampered its implementation. In addition, remnants of the old communist bureaucracy are still in charge of a huge sector of Manchuria's economy, prompting government leaders to encourage private enterpeneurships without government spurring.

There are three industrial zones in Manchuria: Mukden-Dalin Industrial Zone, Cacon-Girin Industrial Zone, and Harbin-Sartu Industrial Zone. Two major urban agglomerations have been formed: the central and southern Afkai Aliang urban agglomeration and the Hachang urban agglomeration. The main industrial cities are Mukden, Dalin, Engemer Alin, Boisi, Fusi Hecen, Girin, Cacon, and Harbin.

Automotive Industry

Manchuria is the world's sixth largest automobile maker, with 5,340,034 units produced by 2018. Most are exported to China, Russia, Eastern Europe, Korea, and Third World countries. Manchuria had difficulties in penetrating the Western markets due to Manchu cars being perceived as knockoffs of Russian, Korean, and Japanese vehicles, a trend that it managed to overcome by the mid-2010s.Automotive makers include Masu,Kiruda, Hadeyim, Eldepi, and others.

A Manchurian-built automobile.

Services

Services account for at least one fourth of Manchuria's economy. Some of the largest banks of Manchuria are the Manchurian National Bank, the Mukden Bank,Harbin Bank, and the Bank of Girin.

Transportation

Main article: Transportation in Manchuria

Manchurian railways by 1945.

Transportation in Manchuria is dominated by railways, with roads coming in second and air and sea transport not falling behind.

Railway network

Manchuria's railways, owned by the Manchurian National Railway, are one of the world's busiest. High-speed rail in Manchuria is common; as the matter of fact, the first railway system to be called "high-speed" was created during the Manchukuo era. The late Qing's Dong Qing Railway and the South Manchurian Railway constitute the "D" word Manchurian Railway. While serving Russian and Japanese interests, it also promoted the development of the country. Harbin, as the intersection of two railways, replaced Cicigar and became the major city in North. During the Manchukuo era, the Japanese expanded the railway network, which is not much different from the current form. In recent years, high-speed railway lines such as the Qingdao-Abkai Passenger Railway, the Harbin-Dalin High-speed Railway, the Cacon-Girin InterCity, the Ha-Ji Railway, and the Muk-Dan Railway have also been completed and opened to traffic.

Cacon tram.

Manchurian Railway Vehicle high speed train in Mukden.

Highways

Manchuria has an extensive highway system. The Dalin-Mukden Superhighway was opened in 1990, shortly before the fall of the Communist regime.It is operated by the Manchurian Expressway Company Ltd.

Shipping

Manchuria's major port is Dalin, with Niehetun as second. Dalin's port handles the bulk of shipping in Manchuria.During 1973, Dalin handled 23.1 million tonnes.By 2015, this now stands to 555 million tonnes.Dalin is the world's seventeenth-largest port in 2012; however by 2023 it fell to 44th place.

Aviation

Mukden Airport.

There are currently 22 major civil airports, including international airports: Mukden International Airport, Harbin International Airport, Cacon New International Airport, Dalin International Airport, Hailar Airport, Aidan Airport, Mudanbira Airport, Isang Ǧasen Airport, Yalu Airport and Giamusi Airport. The first four airports have flights globally, while the rest are concentrated on neighboring Asian countries. The Usanggari Nuhalin Tala Plain is has many airports. Manchurian Airlines has been the flag carrier of Manchuria since 1931.

Energy

The slim majority of Manchuria's energy resources are being based on fossil fuels; nuclear energy and hydroelectric energy are slowly taking their place. Coal-fired plants are stil in common use despite calls for their decommissioning. Petroleum power plants are also common though less so due to focus for transportation use. Renewable energy like solar and wind power had been limited due to lack of funds and overabundance of energy supply. Mawehe (Manchurian Petroleum Company) is the country's state owned petroleum company; however, its duopoly along with Petrogurun (National Synthetic Petroleum Company) has been broken since the fall of communism, though both remain the largest petroleum companies.

Science and Technology

Manchuria has encouraged science and technology since the Communist period, though it preferred "not to brag about its achievements." Manchuria's expenditures on science are 7.2 percent equivalent of the national GDP in 2018.

Manchuria produced several world renowned scientists. Yongki, Emperor Hungli's fifth son, was known for book Jiaotong Tenggao in Chinese and concerns about astronomical calculations. The Duin Namun I Yooni Bithe, also created during Hungli's period, was the largest collection of books in Manchurian and Chinese history, and dealt with scientific topics as well as literature. Hungli's predecessor Hiowan Yei was even more renowned and personally supervised the creation of the Kangxi Dictionary.

Scientists such as Peng Chuah was the chief scientist in building Manchuria's nuclear arsenal.Sugia Ujin developed Manchuria's first satellite. In 1958, Sun graduated "with highest honor" and returned to China. Min Ciuli, a Mukden native that later emigrated to the United States, was the first doctor to successfully use chemotheraphy in fighting maligant cancer.

There are also Manchu innovators in the present. One example is Nanfulu Gosin, a astrophysicist who cooperated with China and developed the Five hundred meter Aperture Spherical Telescope in China, and advised in the construction of a new telescope in Yanbiyan before his death. Laibu Engiye was the chief scientist of Manchuria's lunar lander program.Gualgia Shumuri is also reknowned for his contribution for artificial intelligence.

Manchurians are also known for inventions that were only recently appreciated in the present day. Poisoned arrows, two-seasoned rice planting,and planting new rice and oilseed vareities are among the inventions created during the Qing. The first iteration of a machine gun was also created by Daizi during the early Qing.

Manchuria is the eighth nation that launched an independently-built rocket into space, in January 8, 2001, called the Adun-i Haban (Auspicious Cloud). In February 24, 2003, in response to China launching the Shenzhou manned rockets, Manchuria launched its own man into space, Yanggia Horong. However, he was not the first Manchurian into space; Ligia Sekien and Liohala Cungfu were the first Manchurians into space launched by the Interkosmos program together with the Soviet Union.

Demographics

Main article: Demographics of Manchuria

Languages

Main article: Manchu language

The official language is the Manchu language, which was revived during the Wang Cengbin era and continued during Manchukuo as the Japanese were anxious in reducing the Chinese influence in the country. While a plurality of the population of Manchuria are proficient in Chinese or "Guanhua" as it was popularly called (45%), most of the native-speakers of Manchu (43%) are ethnically Manchurians or Sibe people; the rest speak Manchu as a second language and is the lingua franca of the government and the military. Back in even the 19th century, most Manchus spoke only Mandarin. It is only through independence in 1911 that Manchu language was re-emphasized as the national language. Although the language switch was slow, it was intensified during the communist era, to deter Chinese plans for annexation. During the era of the first Manchu State and Manchukuo the old vertical alphabet was used, but since the People's Republic the Cyrillic alphabet is in use. Sibe speakers from the former Xinjiang province were brought in and taught the Manchu cadres and trained new Manchu-speaking teachers. The near-exclusive use of Manchu in the military and the government, mandated in the communist era, which employed universal conscription was cited as a reason in the Manchu-language revival. Modern Standard Manchu as it was called is different from Classical Manchu as it was written in the Cyrillic script introduced in 1947. Also, it contains heavier Russian and Mongolian vocabulary, mainly as lexicons for non-existent words in Manchu. The traditional Manchu script is re-instated slowly. Manchu is the primary language of instruction, though classes in Chinese/Guanhua, Korean, Japanese, Russian, and English are available.

Other languages are Korean, spoken and has official status in Aidan, Russian near the Russian border and some large cities, Japanese in Dalin and isolated southern communities, Mongolian which has official status in Hulunbuir and Hinggan provinces, along with Orochon, Evenki, Nanai, and Daur.

Ethnic Groups

Ethnicity in Manchuria (Manchuria Statistics Office 2020)

  Manchu (54%)

  Nikan (28%)

  Korean (9%)

  Mongolian (3%)

  Russians (2%)

  Japanese (1.6%)

  Hui (1%)

  Other (Evenki, Nanai, Daur, etc.) (2.4%)

Young Manchus in traditional costume

The Manchus and the Chinese are the largest ethnic groups in the country, with 44 percent of them are Manchus and 37 are Chinese. However it is commonly accepted that the Chinese population is much higher and the real majority of the country due to assimilation, and emigration during the communist period; many of them simply recorded their ethnicity as Manchu in censuses. Intermarriage between Manchus and Chinese are common and became more acceptable by the fall of the Qing. Even some famous Chinese political figures had Manchu daughter in-laws.Koreans compose nine percent of the population, Mongolians 3%, and Russians and mixed Russians comprise 2%.

Religion

Main article: Religion in Manchuria

Temple of Guandi in Gurban Subarhan.

The 1991 Constitution proclaims complete freedom of religion. 23.3 percent of the population say in a 2014 interview that they do not practice any religion. During the Communist era, the Manchurian communist government did little to interfere in the religious affairs of each country as long as they obey the party line. The strongest traditional religious influences in Manchuria are Buddhism, Tengriism, Manchu Shamanism, and Confucianism. However, the largest numbers of people in Manchuria are said to be non-religious.Buddhists are the next most numerous group in Manchuria.Vajrayana Buddhism is the most popular Buddhist sect among the ethnic Manchus, as they were officially patronized by the Manchu emperors starting from Hungtaiji. Certain religious groups, mainly those who have a pacifist bent such as Jehovah's Witnesses, and new religious movements are banned. An unusual theme of Manchurian religion is the greater penetration of Christianity in Manchuria. Due to the majority of the European settlers being Russians and Ukrainians, the Orthodox Christians are the majority of the Christian population in Manchuria, but Catholics and Protestants are also well-represented, typically with Koreans.

Religion in Manchuria

  Manchu shamanism, Manchurian religion (including Manchurian Chinese variations), Chinese Buddhism, Confucians and Taoists), or not religious people (58.82%)

  Shanrendao (25%)

  Chinese ancestral religion (7.73%)

  Buddhism (6.3%)

  Christianity (2.15%)

  Islam (0.04%)

Fertility Rate

Manchuria has the lowest fertility rate in the world. It was estimated that in 2015, Manchuria's fertility rate was 0.55 percent, even lower than Japan, which already have a low fertility rate.

Education

Main article: Education in Manchuria

Manchuria inherited from Manchukuo and Communist times an efficient educational system. Manchuria's government had established numerous universities and schools. City universities tend to be of better quality than provincial schools, a problem acknowledged by the government. Literacy rates have been on an all-time high of 98.9 percent, with most illiteracy coming from the western rural areas of Manchuria.

Notable universities include the Manchuria State University, Mukden University, Harbin University, Dalin University of Technology, and among others.

Manchuria's education system is divided into primary, secondary, and tertiary education. Facilities are either maintained by both private and public schools under the Ministry of Education. The ministry also sets a National Curriculum that provides guidelines for teachers; it is always regularly updated. Private schools may adopt a modified version of the National Curriculum provided it did not conflict with the government's policies.

All education is compulsory in primary and secondary. Subsidies remain for these schools; most tertiary school subsidies ceased after the fall of the communist regime. However, the government maintained the position that public education would be permanently be free.

Prior to formal education, children are educated in kindergartens. By the time they reached five, they are enrolled in primary schools until the age of eleven. In elementary school, the children by learning Manchu, Guanhua, mathematics, science and physical education. Manchurian schools usually conduct school festivals, a trait inherited from the Manchukuo and communist eras.

Like its fellow East Asian countries, Manchuria's education system has been criticized due to pressures given to its students. Rote memorization are also seen as a problem.However like its Asian neighbors, it was also praised for the quality of its graduates.

Health

Main article: Health in Manchuria

Manchuria has a universal health system; all citizens are required to sign up. The system was created during Communist times in 1956 as official government policy for its citizens. All Manchurians can sign for either a private program of either two of the government's insurance programs, which are both subsidized. Both private and public hospitals exist; in the case of the latter, they are administered by the Ministry of Health's Public Hospital Administration.

Cardiovascular diseases are the single highest reason for death in Manchuria.The average life expectancy for Manchurians is 79.8 years; 78 for males and 80 for females.1.9 percent of deaths in Manchuria are attributed to communicable and preventable diseases, higher than in Korea and Russia but lower than in China and Mongolia.

According to the US State Department, Manchurians have virtually 100 percent access to clean water and sanitation;95 percent have access to improved sanitation facilities by 2015.

Both state-owned and private-owned universal insurance system is in place; the latter were permitted after the fall of communism and at least 49 percent of the population have access to it; private insurance, while more expensive, is considered as superior. The quality of health care is said to be good, if not excellent; differing health problems exist from obesity in urban areas and malnutrition in the rural areas. Every individual is entitled to a health card detailing full medical records.

While Manchuria has a low AIDS rate, it was steadily increasing, and is spreading from the urban areas to the rural ones, alarming health officials and critics alike.Most of the people interviewed in Manchuria are said to be reasonably educated about AIDS.

Society and Culture

Culture

Manchurian culture is a mix of traditional Manchu culture, Manchurian Chinese influences, and input from its neighbors and conquerors. Although many commonly thought of Manchus as nomadic like the neighboring Mongols, in reality, most Manchus are sedentary. A common question by many scholars is if Manchu culture is a culture of its own right, or was feared to be assimilated to Chinese culture.

During the communist era, Manchuria tried to build a culture unique from its past, using common Communist ideals, but with mixed success. In the end, it opted to pursue a unique kind of Manchu nationalism, even as it opened up its culture to the West. However, cultural norms such as respect to authority, family life, and respect for consensus remain strong, as well as maintaining aspects of traditional culture.

Manchurians have a number of festivals, some are borrowed from the Chinese like Duanwu Festival and the Spring Festival..Others are of Manchu origin like the Банжн Інең Banjin Inenggi (ᠪᠠᠨᠵᡳᠨ
ᡳᠨᡝᠩᡤᡳ), or the traditional Manchu ethnic holiday, commemorated in the thirteenth day of the tenth month of the Chinese calendar.Another day is called the "Food Extermination Day" or "Day of Starvation."Although it was commonly believed that it involved fasting, as it was intended to commemorate a day where Nurhaci run out of food, this is not the case, but instead it honors the hospitality of the villagers despite not even having tableware. The traditional food eaten on this day are rice, pork, and egg wrapped in perilla leaves.

Yobocun, a Chinese folk comedy genre, was popularized by the Manchus living in Beijing. It also spread into Manchuria itself and artists perform in Chinese and Manchu.

Music

Main article: Music of Manchuria

Manchu traditional folk singer.

The Juse Deote Bithe is a Manchu folk ballad song common with ethnic Manchus in Manchuria and China.

Ulabun is a form of Manchu entertainment combining story-telling and music with an octagonal drum, and is known to be a traditional ethnic Manchu folk music.Akxan is the most famous ulabun singer.

Niohuru Gehun is an accomplished Manchurian composer and pianist that played for various orchestras such as the New York Philharmonic Orchestra and Vienna Orchestra..

Manchurian pop music at first utilized Guanhua as Manchu-language music are still considered only for folk music. This perception changed in the late 1990s to compete with Korean and Japanese pop music, and started to use the Manchu language. Since then, Manchupop refers to pop songs sung in the Manchu language. Yehenara Yebken, formerly a Mandopop and Mandopop singer in Hong Kong, Taiwan, and China, later shifted to Manchu language songs late in her career and kickstarted the trend, along with Akxan in the 2000s.

Film

Main article: Cinema of Manchuria

The Manchu film industry started during the Manchukuo-era, with the Cacon Film Studio in the later Manchurian People's Republic utilizing the same equipment of the old Manchurian Film Association. Like other communist states, Manchurian films during that period were considered propaganda materials by the government, but the filmmakers were allowed a greater leeway in creative content as long as they obeyed the party line.Many filmmakers and films from Manchuria won prizes in foreign film festivals especially the Prague International Film Festival.

Art

Manchuria's art reflects the period and the political climate; a strong Japanese aesthetic element is not only present during the Manchukuo era, but also during the communist era. Post-communist Manchuria continued the trend.Ixilangga Art Studio was known to commission monuments for foreign countries.

Literature

Main article: Manchu literature

The Tale of the Nisan Shaman is considered the magnum opus of Manchu literature.The story revolves on the titular Shaman to revive a young hunter. The story is also widespread on other related peoples like the Evenki,Sibe, and Daur. Its modern version by Dekdengge was written in the 1800s.

Manchu literature before the establishment of the People's Republic tend to be extremely limited, and what literature were there were in Chinese. Since founding, Manchuria saw what Jogia called the "Flowering of Manchurian Literature". The immigration of Sumuru Xuxu to Manchuria and his shift of writing from Chinese to Manchu have been called influential in later cadres of Manchurian writers. Another known writer was Caogia Bai, also wrote novels about the anti-Japanese wars in Manchuria in both Manchu and Chinese. Manchu language literature during that period, however, operated on a state mandated censorship and limited Manchu-language readers at that time. Only after the fall of Communism did Manchu-language literature proliferate, and much of this were published on the Internet.

Modern Manchu literature also tend to be influenced by science and therefore very willing to embrace science fiction. It was said that many authors chose this genre because during the communist era, literature topics tended to be historical or folk-tale in variety. This enabled the writers to depict sexual crime , cyberwarfare , space exploration and immortality in a manner that was distinct from science fiction of other countries, as they usually centered on anthropocentrism.

Chinese-language literature in Manchuria, although ignored by the government, were somewhat more widespread. It diverged from mainstream Chinese literature since most Chinese typefaces have been melted down and had to use Cyrillic script in its place. Even when the ban on Chinese characters was lifted after Communism, writers tend to mix Chinese with Cyrillic characters or Manchu in their works, creating a curious niche in Chinese literature.

Architecture

While Manchu architecture commonly follows foreign influences, Manchuria did retain some architectural pecularities and eccentricities The Fulmian Bo, or the "pocket house", is a typical Manchu architectural style. The house faces the north with the door opening south for sunlight. To preserve the head, it is encompassed by four walls. The house had pipes from the ground that serve as chimneys. In each room, there is a "Tumen Bo" that is used for private religious activities and also used to as sleeping rooms. Accoring to Jiro Murata, there are at least five or six architectural influence; ethnic Manchu, Han Chinese, Tibetan, And Western, plus Korean and Hui sensibilities. Also, traditional Manchurian buildings in ancient times were less-durable and only became stronger by the time of the Qing. Later on, the Han Chinese imported their own building styles.

During the Manchukuo era, it imported the Imperial Crown Style as shown in buildings built during the Manchukuo era. Because the Manchu architectural styles have not fully developed and forced to adopt Chinese elements, during the Manchukuo era, it adopted the Han Chinese building appearances but adopted the interior designs and sensibilities of traditional Manchu houses. During the Communist period, it inherited Socialist Realism styles and mixed with previous traditions.

Larger structures such as the Ħalhun Be Jail Gurung, for example, shows strong Tibetan influences from its seemingly Chinese interior.

Cuisine

Main article: Manchu cuisine

Manchurian cuisine (Manju sogi) is a amalgamation of ethnic Manchu, Chinese, Korean, Mongolian, and European influences. They are often hearty, with meats being roasted and seasoned with cumin and garlic and salt. The Man-Han Imperial Feast was known in Asia as a court dish during Qing times, modified in the present-day to suit modern tastes and only using domesticated meat.

Gidaha Lafu Pork Stew.

Manchurian cuisine is concentrated on grains, vegetables, and meat. Wheat, sorghum, soybean, and rice are commonly used as staple grains, with potatoes and corn becoming common in the late 20th century. Compared to China, Korea, and Japan, Manchurian cuisine uses greater amount of meat. Unlike in China, Manchurians tend to limit their choices of meat, as many Manchus for example, see eating dog-meat as sacrilegious.Nasan Sogi is fermented cabbage similar but not identical to the Korean kimchi, and is commonly used in dishes. Sile sengi duha is a famous pork and cabbage dish, as well as ludagun, and Guotie. Manchurian barbecue stands are also common in Manchurian cities, and it is claimed it was a legacy of traditional Manchurian barbecue techniques.

Sport

Manchuria's national sports are said to be ice hockey, football, basketball, and the indigenously developed sport of nicuhe, literally meaning "Pearl-ball". Martial arts are also commonly practiced, including Buku or Manchurian wrestling, and archery. Manchus like Mongolians were fond of falconry.Horse riding was deemed very important for Manchu culture..The Manchu Emperor Hungli especially promoted horse riding and archery as important pillars of Manchu culture that it persists to this day.

Manchuria's football association was founded during the Manchukuo era. While it is a competitive team in the Asian championships, it was only able to enter the FIFA World Cup once in 2010, defeating Cote d'Ivoire's national football team but in turn defeated by both Portugal and Brazil.

A stadium in Aidan.

Manchuria was supposed to compete in the Summer Olympics in 1932, but its only candidate, Lio Cangcon, defected to the Republic of China and became the first Chinese Olympic representative. Attempts to join the 1936 Olympics in Berlin were frustrated by the International Olympic Committee's decision not to allow unrecognized states in the Olympics. Manchuria was to join the 1940 Summer Olympics but World War II prevented its entry Instead, it sent atheltes to the 1940 Far East Games organized by Japan. The Republic of China repeatedly denied Manchuria entry to the Olympic Games until 1972. Manchuria is more successful in Winter Games, primarily due to the country's climate; indeed it was only second to Korea in the number of Asian medalists in the Winter Olympics.Ice skating is also a popular Manchu sport and has roots in tradition;Qing emperors once retained an ice skating battalion of Manchu bannermen chosen from the best of his forces, and Qianlong even referred to ice skating as a "national custom".Shen Zo and Jogia Hongbo were winners of ice-skating pairs in the 2010 Winter Olympics, winning the gold and ended the streak of Russian dominance in pair skating.Tongia Jian is another famous Manchurian figure skater, winning championships in Europe.

Traditional children's sports are alive with children in Manchuria.Gachuha is a popular sport using the ankle bone of a horse or a pig.

Motor racing sports are also popular; a group of Manchurian businessmen are negotiating with Formula One to bring the race to Manchuria by 2022; however due to the COVID-19 pandemic, this idea was scrapped.

Media

Manchuria's press is rated as "Partially Free" by the Reporters Without Borders. While media is more free than in neighboring China and Russia, intimidation and censorship by government are still criticized.

The government maintains the Manchurian Broadcasting Network.

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External Links

• https://manchuria.gov.mj Government website (English)
• https://manchuria.net General information and tourism site (English)
• Manchuria Encyclopædia Britannica entry
• Manchuria profile at BBC News
• Manchuria from UCB Libraries GovPubs
• Manchuria
• Manchuria The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency
• Manchuria at Curlie

Attribution notices
This page uses material from the Wikipedia page Manchuria, which is released under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License (view authors).