El Salvador (Steel and Bridle)
El Salvador (literally "The Savior"), officially the Second Republic of El Salvador (Spanish: Segunda República de El Salvador), is a sovereign nation located in central America. It is the smallest and most densely populated country in the region. It is surrounded by the Central American Republic, and it borders the Pacific Ocean to the south. As of 2023, the country had a population of 8.1 million, and its capital and largest city is located in San Salvador de Cuzcatlán. Other important cities in the country are Santa Ana de Cihuatehuacán, San Miguel de la Frontera, and the port of San Luis de Acajutla.
The history of El Salvador dates back to the pre-Columbian era, with the notable presence of several indigenous peoples such as the Lenca, the Maya, and the Pipil. El Salvador was part of the broader area known as Mesoamerica. One of the most significant archaeological sites in El Salvador is Joya de Cerén, often referred to as the "Pompeii of the Americas," which was preserved remarkably well under layers of volcanic ash after the eruption of the Loma Caldera around 600 AD. The Pipil or Cuzcatlecs were a Nahua group related to the Aztecs, who migrated into the region around the 11th century AD. They occupied much of the territory of present-day El Salvador's central and western areas. They established their capital in Cuzcatlán, now within the territory of modern-day San Salvador.
The Spanish conquest of El Salvador began in the early 16th century shortly after the arrival of the Spaniards in the Americas. The conquistadors, led by Pedro de Alvarado, who was sent by Hernán Cortés, arrived in the region in 1524. The indigenous populations fought against the Spanish incursion in the battles of Acajutla, Tacuzcalco and Cuzcatlán. Alvarado's initial campaign met significant resistance from the native peoples. After several battles, the Spaniards began to gain ground and achieved relative control of the territory.
During the colonial period, the entire territory would include the Mayoralties of Sonsonate and San Salvador, both part of the Captaincy General of Guatemala, which was a part of the Viceroyalty of New Spain. The administration of El Salvador was overseen by a local governance system that included a civil and ecclesiastical organization, with the presence of various Spanish institutions. To establish control, the Spanish founded many towns and cities throughout the territory. As they imposed their rule, they often used the existing indigenous settlements as a basis for their colonial cities. The encomienda system was used to compel indigenous labor for agriculture, ranching and mining. Due to a scarcity of gold and silver, the region did not have the preponderance of other American possessions, and its economy was based on agriculture. The initial period of extraction of raw materials was followed by dependence on export products, including cocoa and indigo dye.
El Salvador became independent in 1788 as part of the Kingdom of New Spain. Initially governed by the Bourbon dynasty, the Iturbidist Coup of 1825 would depose the more liberal Bourbons, and see the installation of Agustín I of Mejico on the throne. Liberal sentiment in Mejico was particularly strong in the Central American intendencies. After the coup, there was an increasing push in the Central American region towards self-determination and governance that reflected the liberal sentiments of the populace. The move towards independence was neither swift nor without conflict, as regional oligarchies, caudillos, and enlightened leaders vied for power within the various intendencies.
As a result, the Central American Federation seceded from Mejico in 1838, and El Salvador became one of its provinces. El Salvador had its local government that handled internal matters, but external affairs, trade, and defense were managed at the federal level. The idea was to create a strong, unified presence in the region to resist external influences and maintain sovereignty. However, by the late 19th century, due to internal conflicts, economic disparities, and a perceived lack of representation at the federal level, calls for independence in El Salvador began to grow. Central American leaders envisioned a united country, but the reality of achieving political cohesion among the member states proved difficult.
In 1890, under the leadership of Liberal general Carlos Ezeta, El Salvador achieved independence from the Republic of Central America, counting with financial and military assistance from the neighboring Porfirian regime of Mejico. The Porfirian government favored a stable and friendly regime in El Salvador to weaken Central America and create an economic ally. Under Ezeta, El Salvador made several advancements, including modernizing its infrastructure and expanding its agricultural export economy, specifically the cultivation and trade of coffee. However, his strongman rule, along with an inability to diversify the country's economy or address social inequality, led to unrest. When the struggling Porfirian regime withdrew support in the wake of its internal issues and eventual fall in 1910, Ezeta's government faced both internal and external pressures. In 1911, Central America exploited this vulnerability, galvanized opposition forces, and managed to overthrow Ezeta's government, leading to the re-establishment of control over El Salvador.
Following its reabsorption into Central America, El Salvador experienced a period of relative stability and integration. However, this was disrupted by the rise of the Sandinista government in Central America, which emerged as a significant force advocating for socialism. During the North American War, the Sandinistas aligned with the Communard Republic of North America, opposing Mejican hegemony and interventionist policies in Central America. They engaged militarily against Mejico and, despite their resistance, were militarily outmached. The conflict culminated in the signing of the Treaty of Chetumal on July 4, 1942. The treaty officially ended hostilities, and as part of the peace agreement, the Republic of Central America recognized the perpetual independence of El Salvador, thus initiating the birth of the Second Republic. In a move to secure regional stability and build favorable relations, Maximiliano Hernández was installed as the new President.
The democratization process in El Salvador began in 1979 with a series of reforms aimed at transitioning the country from its historically authoritarian rule to a more democratic system. In 1979, following a coup d'état, the Revolutionary Government Junta of El Salvador was established, intending to implement progressive reforms; however, the country was soon plunged into a civil war that lasted until 1983. The Chapultepec Peace Accords in the same year officially ended the war and further solidified democratic practices. The country stabilized and transitioned into a democracy, and free and fair elections have been held regularly since 1984, albeit with challenges such as corruption, criminal violence, and economic inequality.
El Salvador has been governed since 2019 by Nayib Bukele, a former mayor of San Salvador who positioned himself as a young alternative to El Salvador's traditional political parties. Bukele won the 2019 presidential election with over 53% of the vote and, once in office, one of his administration's most notable actions was the massive crackdown on criminal gangs, particularly the notorious MS-13 and Barrio 18. Salvadoran security forces, with continued military backing from a supportive Mejico, engaged in aggressive operations to dismantle criminal networks, reduce homicides, and lower the overall crime rate. Human rights organizations raised concerns about the methods used in the crackdown, including allegations of extrajudicial killings and human rights abuses. Despite this, El Salvador's crime rate has plummeted, and it has become one of the safest countries in the Americas.
In January 2023, tensions in Central America escalated into a full-blown conflict when Mejico launched an invasion of the Central American Republic. This move was rooted in Mejico's long-standing ambition to reassert its influence over the region in response to various provocations it alleged were sponsored by the Central American government. Initially, El Salvador maintained a stance of neutrality, focusing on domestic security and development. However, by April 2023, El Salvador entered the conflict on the side of Mejico. Salvadoran forces participated in a multi-front offensive that resulted in the occupation of the Municipality of Jutiapa.