Abbasid Caliphate (Merveilles des Morte)
Abbasid Caliphate | |
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750–1258 1330–1419 1497–1614 | |
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(c. 1550)  Coat of arms
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The Abbasid caliphate in 1390 The Abbasid caliphate in 1390 | |
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The extent of the Abbasid Realm in 1589 The extent of the Abbasid Realm in 1589 | |
| Capital |
Cairo (1497-1536, 1590-1614) Damascus (1536-1590) |
| Common languages | Arabic, Armenian, Berber, Georgian, Greek, Persian |
| Religion | Sunni Islam |
| Government | Caliphate |
| Caliph | |
• 1497-1504 | al-Mustanṣir II |
• 1521-1564 | al-Abdūkʿrāhman |
• 1612-1614 | al-Mutawakkil III |
| Vizier | |
• 1536-1554 | Barakat ibn Mohamed al-Haroun |
• 1601-1614 | Abd al-Muttalib bin Hassan |
| Legislature | Ulema |
| Historical era | Early modern period |
• Established | 1497 |
| 750 – 1258 | |
| 1330 – 1419 | |
| 1497 – 1614 | |
• Yuzhar Rebellion | 1602 – 1614 |
| Population | |
• 1580 | 21,000,000 |
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The Abbasid Caliphate (Arabic: اَلْخِلَافَةُ ٱلْعَبَّاسِيَّةُ, al-Khilāfah al-ʿAbbāsīyah) was a theocratic empire located in North Africa and the Middle East. Helmed by the Abbasid dynasty, a house whom descended from the Islamic prophet Muhammad's uncle, Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib, it is considered to be the third Caliphate to succeed the prophet Muhammad, following the Rashidun and the Umayyad. The population of the Caliphate in 1580 was 21,000,000.
Shortly after the death of Imam Andalah al-Baghdadi in 1329, the Abbasid dynasty siezed power in Baghdad only a year later with support from the Mamluke Sultanate, reforming the Imamate into a successor state of the Abbasid Caliphate. Although there is little surviving records on the Baghdad Imamate, it has often been charactized as a "rump state" in comparison to it's former empire, with the Taymiyyah revolution leading to the restriction of technical development and the patronage that is widely depicted in the Islamic golden age. The Abbasid dynasty would be forced out of Baghdad in the early 15th century, returning to Cairo during the collapse of Timurid Empire. From 1419 to 1489, the Abbasid dynasty and caliph were puppets of the Mamluke Sultanate, with their authority continuing to be supported by the Muslimid dynasty.
During the final years of the Pirate Wars, the Abbasid Dynasty under Caliph al-Mustansir II would have their rule re-instated after the collapse of the Hafsid Empire. He would go on to become the first Caliph of the restored Abbasid Caliphate, ruling until 1504 before his son, Maalik, would ascend the throne after al-Mustansir II's death. Caliph Maalik would set the bedrock for the Caliphate's future period of innovation, finishing the construction of the Great Library of Alexandria and raising a successful jihad against the Kingdom of Ethiopia and the Zaydiyyah Imams of Yemen, annexing the latter in the process. Caliph Maalik would be succeeded by his step-son and military general Caliph Abdukrahman, who would go on to pave the path for a second Abbasid Golden Age after re-asserting authority over the Levant and Lower Mesopotamia following the First Abbasid-Georgian War (1531-1535), waging successful wars against the Spanish (1539-1551) and Byzantine empires (1544–1557).
History
First phase
Second phase
During the early 14th century, the Ilkhanate would face unrelenting civil unrest following it's transition to Christianity, accompanied by their failed crusade against the Mamlukes. In the midst of the revolts across the Ilkhanate, an Imamate would be established in Baghdad, lead by warrior-general Andalah Al-Ebrahimi and the Ummah of Iraq. During it's original conception, the Imamate would be supported by the Abbasid Caliph in Cairo as a puppet for the Mamlukes, likely as an outlet to establish further puppet states across the Middle East.
In 1300, the Abbasid Caliph would call for Jihad against the Ilkhanate, which would be picked up by Ghazan's brother, Öljaitü, who had become enraged by his brother's defeat at the hands of Persian nobility in a power struggle with the Buddhist Ilkhan Baydu. Although Öljaitü had signed a treaty with Baydu in 1295, the military commander would exacerbate the treaty in 1305 with the establishment of the Sultanate of Mosul, which ensured protection for the Imamate of Baghdad and help achieve full independence later that year. While Öljaitü would continue campaigns in Persia, Andalah Al-Ebrahimi would be appointed as Imam of Baghdad, and become the head of scholarly work in the region. At some point in these early years, Yazd would also fall under the authority of the Imamate. During the reign of Andalah Al-Ebrahimi and following the end of the Ilkhanate, the Imamate would prosper for decades to come, with the House of Wisdom becoming active once again. Most of the major developments during this time revolved around re-construction of many Islamic institutions initially destroyed during the Mongol campaigns.
The Imamate would ally with the Mamlukes during it's initial years, with some scholars even pointing towards it as a puppet government for the Mamlukes in mesopotamia. Regardless of whether the Imam al-Ebrahimi was a puppet or not, the Imamate would expand it's territory greatly in the Middle East. In 1317, the Imamate of Baghdad, backed by the Mamlukes, would declare war on Cicilia, led by General Gawdat Abdul-Hamid Al-Amin. After a brutal campaign that would last nearly six years, Cicilia would fall to the Imamate and the Mamlukes, with the Imamate expanding their territory into Anatolia. They would lose the territory of Cicilia in 1350 after a popular revolt.
In 1329, the Abbasid Caliph, al-Mustakfī I, would visit Baghdad after numerous invitations from Imam al-Ebrahimi. Although sources differ, it had been the goal of Imam al-Ebrahimi since 1305 to re-establish the Abbasid Caliphate to it's former glory. Upon Caliph al-Mustakfī I entering the gates of Baghdad and meeting the Imam, it is there that the Imam collapsed and died due to a heart attack. Within the next year, Caliph al-Mustakfī I would migrate the Abbasid dynasty from Cairo to Baghdad, re-establishing the Abbasid dynasty into power while legitimizing their control over Mesopotamia. By 1330, the Abbasid Caliphate had been reborn.
During the early years the Caliphate, the Islamic scholar Ibn Taymiyyah would grow in prominence across the Levant, expounding his philosophy of complete iconoclasm against veneration of Islamic tombs. This would be known as the Taymiyyah Revolution, classified as a more conservative school of Sunni Islam. The disciples of Taymiyyah would move from the Levant to Cairo following the return of the Abbasids to Baghdad. The spread of Ibn Taymiyyah's ideology would shortly engulf the Middle East within decades, with many of the liberal denominations of Sunni Islam being ostracized from public discussion in Damascus, Medina and Alexandria, while moderate Islamic scholars that support Neoplatonic philosophy would be ridiculed by Taymiyyah's disciples in Egypt. During this time, General Gawdat Abdul-Hamid Al-Amin would be sent to assist the Sultanate of Ifat against the Ethiopia Empire sometime in the late 1320s, but would return in 1330 after suffering major losses and the Ethiopian suzerainty of Ifat.
In 1330, the Abbasid Caliph al-Mustakfī I would declare his support for Taymiyyah Islam, ordering the Holy Guard to "purify Islam of apostates and the impious across the Caliphate", launching jihad against the false believers of the Caliphate. Within the decade following, the disciples of Ibn Taymiyyah would form the Taymiyyah Order, an Islamic military organization centered at Cairo. The Taymiyyah Order would expel many of the Mamluke hierarchy in 1332, forcing the Mamluke Sultan to embrace the school of Taymiyyah while also purging any idolotrous in the nation, destroying some Prophetic shrines and erasing people or animals from certain works of art. After the deposing of the Mamluke Sultan, the Taymiyyah Order would appoint the Sultan's cousin, Nasir Al-Din Muhammad, as the new Mamluke Sultan, as well as the aiding in the Caliphate's jihad against impiety.
In the late 14th century, the Persian General Tamerlane would expand his realm throughout Iran and parts of Transoxiana. In 1393, Tamerlane's expansion had reached the gates of Baghdad, after the Siege of Baghdad that was eerily reminiscent of the Mongolian siege, would effectively cause for the Abbasid dynasty to be absorbed into the Timurid Empire. In 1395, Tamerlane would depose the sitting Caliph at the time, al-Mutawakkil I, and replace him with his cousin, Abū Ḥafṣ ʿUmar, who would adopt the regnal title of Caliph al-Wāthiq II. Tamerlane's appointing of Caliph al-Wāthiq II in Baghdad would cause scholars and theologians in the Middle East to historically refer to him as the "Puppet Caliph".
The Abbasid dynasty under Tamerlane would experience a short-lived golden age, for the expansion of Tamerlane's Empire would cause a surge in intellectual discussion due to the migration of Turks and Persians into Iraq. After the death of Tamerlane, Caliph al-Muʿtaḍid would be appointed as Caliph in Baghdad by the Shah of the Gurkani, Pir Muhammad. The Abbasid dynasty would remain under the Gurkani Empire until the Georgian Empire sieged Mosul and Tehran in 1413. The following year, Georgian armies surrounded and sieged the city of Baghdad, forcing Caliph al-Muʿtaḍid to flee to Cairo, restoring the position in the Sultanate of Turkey.
Third phase
In 1496, the Hafsid Empire would collapse under a series of revolts and rebellions often regarded as the "Pirate Wars". After the death of Sultan Ahmed III, Caliph al-Mustanṣir II, who had reigned as Caliph in the Mamluke Sultanate prior to it's collapse and had spent nearly six years imprisoned, would be re-instated as Caliph of the restored Caliphate under the Mandate of Tunis in 1497. The mandate would ensure the restoration of the Caliphate with the aid of Janannid Sultanate of Ifriqiya, which had recently been established in the former capital of the Hafsid dynasty. Caliph al-Mustanṣir II's reign would be defined for it's numerous reforms to the iqta' system, including the re-organization of the Ulema to serve as a legislative power while the Grand Army would be founded under the leadership of Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi, a military general and mamluke aristocrat of the former Mamluke Sultanate. Caliph al-Mustanṣir II would also attempt to de-emphasize the authority of the Order of Taymiyyah, which had remained a powerful clergy in Egypt since it's revolution in the mid-14th century. These attempts would mostly fail due to the authority the Order held over much of the military at the time.
In 1500, Caliph al-Mustanṣir II would declare war on the Spanish Empire in an attempt to sieze the territory of Rif. The Caliphate would be supported by it's ally, the Wattasid Kingdom. Although initial success had been seen, a devastating blockade would be established across the coast by the Spanish Empire, cutting exports in the region and limiting the output by the African territories. Coupled with the Celtic Confederacy's invasion of Morocco, the Grand Army would face continued defeat at the hands of the Spanish, leaving much of the army to retreat back into Tlemcen. In 1504, Caliph al-Mustanṣir II would die due to a heart attack, and with it, the Rif War would end upon the ascension of his son, Caliph al-Maālīk. Caliph al-Maālīk would openly declare during his first month in office that the war proved too great on the supplies of the Caliphate, and as such would necessitate a period of re-organization. After sending the renowned Abbasid diplomat, Suleiman "The Negotiator", to the Spanish Empire and ending the conflict against Europe formally, Caliph al-Maālīk would turn his attention towards the restoration of intellectual centers across the Caliphate, including the reconstruction of the Great Library of Alexandria (known as "Caliph al-Maālīk's Auditorium" during the time) in 1506 and introducing the printing press in 1507 respectively. During this time though, the printing press only held a theological or ideological purpose, such as printing the Qu'ran or the works of Ibn Taymiyyah.
One of the most crucial compositions in the early Caliphate was Samir al-Azad's 476-page manuscript titled إمبراطوريات الشرق (Latin: Imperia Orientalem; English: "Empires of the East"), which detailed the objective routes and locations of the major kingdoms of East Asia while also providing commentary on the society and culture there. This would prove benefical to the various merchant dynasties of Egypt and Hejaz, as it would provide instructions for travel in Asia and expand trade into the Spice Kingdoms of Ayutthaya and Dai Viet.
To better expand trade in the Indian Ocean, Caliph al-Maālīk would declare war on the Zaidiyyah Imamate of Yemen in an effort to secure the profitable port cities along the coast. This would culminate in the Red Sea War, which saw the Empire of Ethiopia invade the Caliphate in support the Zaidi Imamate, marching as far as Jeddah, while support against the Caliphate would export in the form of Portuguese and Spanish fleets blockading Caliphate ports in the Red Sea. The war would culminate in the Treaty of Aden, which saw the annexation of Yemen and the ceding of Aden to the Empire of Ethiopia. The end of this war would expand the Caliphate's authority in the Indian Ocean trade as a whole, with merchants travelling as far as Japan to trade goods and spices.
Shortly after the war, Caliph al-Maālīk would suffer pneumonia, dying days after contracting it. The death of Caliph al-Maālīk in 1521 would leave a short succession crisis over the position of Caliph due to his lack of male heirs. His eldest daughter, Aisha al-Abbas, had been married to the House of Rūm's Mehmud ibn Abdukrahman al-Rūm, a military general that lead the war in Yemen and an anappointed scholar in the Court at the time, in the prior year. Due to Caliph al-Maālīk's other daughters not have reaching the age of maturity, through the terms of succession, Mehmud ibn Abdukrahman al-Rūm would be appointed and recognized as Caliph, taking the regnal title of Caliph al-Abdūkʿrāhman and establishing a dynastic union between the Abbasid dynasty and the afformentioned House of Rūm.
Although not a lot of information about the Caliph al-Abdūkʿrāhman's early reign exists due to the Great Fire of Cairo in 1541, it is recorded that he began re-instituting educational importance in the Caliphate by converting Caliph al-Maālīk's Auditorium into a formal academy, to better increase translation efforts and to expand the role of the printing press, which had only been used for officiate purposes up until then. In 1521, following the discovery of the Gospel of Judas, referred to at the time as the "Gnostic Gospel", by Mamluke Soldier Abu Hakim al-Edris, the Caliph to fund an archaelogical department to seek and discover rare artifacts in the Middle East, which would culminate in the discovery of the Rosetta stone (although it's purpose had not become apparent until much later), the Veil of Veronica, the Ebla tablets, and a variety of other relics and treasures that would be preserved in the Citadel of Cairo, and later, the Citadel of Damascus.
In 1528, Caliph al-Abdūkʿrāhman would lead a war against the Imamate of Oman, conquering it within a matter of weeks and expanding the power of the Caliphate over the Indian Ocean by taking advantage of the various ship-building ports along the Gulf of Persia. This would further expand the Caliphate's across the Arabian peninsula, with ancient roadways being updated to better facilitate trade and migration between Hejaz and Oman. This would also lead to an influx of Ibadi scholars gravitating toward Egypt, with many taking residence in Alexandria and Cairo. This would also further aid in the translation effort, since many of the Ibadi scholars at the time spoke many different languages as a consequence of their merchantile state.
The aggressive expansion of the Caliphate would come full-circle when Caliph al-Abdūkʿrāhman would invade the Empire of Georgia in late 1531, with the goals of expanding the authority of the Caliph into the Levant and Mesopotamia. This initiatal invasion would culminate in a series of conflicts between the Abbasids and Georgia, and furthermore, Byzantium, which would last nearly 70 years. With reported deaths estimated in the millions, the Abbasid-Georgian War of 1531-1536, often referred to by Arabic historians as the "White Jihad", is likely one of the earliest modern conflicts to have extensive casualties, with more than 350,000 death militarily, with estimated civilian casualties being nearly doubled at the end of Abdukrahman's campaign in Syria.
The first Abbasid-Georgian War was important for a number of reasons that were indirectly tied toward the longevity of a de facto united Islamic state. For one, it saw the ceasing of Sunni-Shia hostilities toward the goal of defeating Georgia, leading to a short-lived alliance with the Safavid dynasty in Persia that lasted until the Abbasid conquest of Iran. Secondly, it was one of the first major conflicts between empires that were built off of gunpowder technology that had circulated throughout Europe in limited capacity in the 15th century, ultimately leading to a number of military developments in the region and one of the first bastion forts to be built in the Middle East. The war also proved the inefficiency of thick-armor in battle, with the musket's introduction in Egypt leading to a myriad of successful campaigns for the Grand Army. Thirdly, the result of the war would pave way for another Abbasid Golden Age and the later unification of the Arabian peninsula. The war would end in 1535 with the Treaty of Jerusalem.
Administration
The Caliph (Arabic: خَلِيفَة, Khalīfah) holds primary executive authority over the Caliphate, and is considered a politico-religious successor to the Islamic prophet Muhammad and a leader of the entire Islamic community. This authority is hereditary, being passed through patriarchal succession in the Abbasid dynasty. The Abbasid dynasty claims descent from the prophet Muhammad's uncle, al-ʿAbbās ibn ʿAbd al-Muṭṭalib, and as such, have been supported by both Sunni and Shia. The position of Caliph acts, in a Western sense, as a monarch and patriarch of the state, and generally held jurisdiction over all matter's of the judiciary and the Grand Army.
List of caliphs
| # | Name (Born – Died) |
Portrait | Reign | Succession right | Remarks | |
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| Years | Dynasty | |||||
| Caliphate in Baghdad (1329 – 1419/1420) | ||||||
| 42 | al-Mustakfī bi-llāh (1281 - 1340) |
1302-1328 (Caliph of Cairo) 1329 - 1340 (Caliph of Baghdad) 38 years |
Abbasid | Son of al-Mutawakkil II | Restored Caliphate in Baghdad Persian Civil War | |
| 43 | al-Wāthiq bi-llāh I (1300 - 1350) |
1340 - 1350 10 years |
First Son of al-Mustakfī | |||
| 44 | al-Ḥākim bi-llāh II (1300 - 1350) |
1350 - 1352 2 years |
Second Son of al-Mustakfī | |||
| 45 | al-Muʿtaḍid bi-'llāh I (1305 - 1350) |
|
1352 - 1362 10 years |
Third Son of al-Mustakfī | ||
| 46 | al-Mutawakkil ʿalā'llāh I (1332 - 1395) |
1362 - 1395 33 years |
Nephew of al-Mustakfī | Deposed by Timur | ||
| 47 | al-Wāthiq bi-'llāh II (1344 - 1407) |
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1395 - 1407 12 years |
Cousin of al-Mutawakkil I | ||
| 48 | al-Mustaʿīn bi-'llāh (1375 - 1414) |
|
1407 - 1414 7 years |
Son of al-Wāthiq I | ||
| 49 | al-Muʿtaḍid bi-'llāh II (1400 - 1441) |
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1414 - 1419 5 years |
Son of al-Mustaʿīn | Last Abbasid Caliph in Baghdad | |
| Abbasid Caliphate (1497 – 1638) | ||||||
| 53 | al-Mustanṣir bi-llāh II (1443 - 1504) |
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1480 - 1491, 1497 - 1504 18 years |
Son of al-Mutawakkil II | Restored the Caliphate in Cairo Rif War (1501-1504) | |
| 54 | al-Maālīk bi-llāh (1478 - 1521) |
1504 - 1521 17 years |
Only Son of al-Mustanṣir II |
Finished re-construction on the Great Library of Alexandria
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| 55 | al-Abdūkʿrāhman ʿalā'llāh I Abdukrahman The Great (1492 - 1564) |
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1521 - 1564 43 years |
Abbasid- Rūm |
Step-Son of al-Maālīk |
Abbasid-Georgian War (1531-1535)
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| 56 | al-Abdūkʿrāhman ʿalā'llāh II (1523 - 1575) |
1564 - 1575 11 years |
Son of al-Abdūkʿrāhman the Great | Abbasid-Georgian War (1565-1568, 1573-1575) | ||
| 57 | al-Selim bi-'llāh (1547 - 1592) |
1575 - 1592 17 years |
Fourth Son of al-Abdūkʿrāhman the Great | Abbasid-Georgian War (1575-1585, 1587-1594) | ||
| 58 | al-Mustanṣir bi-'llāh III (1570 - 1611) |
1592 - 1601 9 years |
Son of al-Selim | Abbasid-Georgian War (1587-1594, 1596-1601) | ||
| 59 | al-Maālīk bi-'llāh II (1584 - 1612) |
1601 - 1612 11 years |
Son of al-Selim | |||
| 60 | al-Mutawakkil bi-'llāh III (1600 - 1614) |
1612 - 1614 2 years |
Son of al-Maālīk II | |||
Footnotes
Merveilles des Morte | ||
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| Timeline |  | |
| Nations | ||
| History | ||
| Pages | ||
| Editorial | ||