Byzantine Empire (Merveilles des Morte)

  

Byzantine Empire Βασιλεία Ῥωμαίων
324–1204 1261–1779
Imperial Flag (c. 1350) Emblem
The Byzantine Empire in 1579
Capital	Constantinople
Common languages	Byzantine Greek, Armenian, Georgian, Arabic
Religion	Eastern Orthodoxy
Demonym(s)	Byzantine Greek
Government	Absolute monarchy
Emperor
• 1261–1282	Michael VII
• 1282–1328	Andronikos II
• 1328–1341	Andronikos III
• 1341–1390	John V
• 1390–1407	John VII
• 1407–1448	Herodotus I
• 1448–1462	Gregorios
• 1463–1506	Andronikos V
• 1506–1528	Herodotus II
Co-Emperor
• 1292–1321	Michael XI
• 1321–1328	Andronikos III
• 1347–1349	John VI
• 1373–1403	Andronikos IV
• 1407–1410	Manuel II
• 1411–1413	John VIII
• 1461–1463	John XI
Legislature	Senate (1261–1412) Body of Colleges (1412–1766) Popular Assembly (1766–1779)
Historical era	Early modern period
• Fourth Crusade	1202 – 1204
• Michael VII crowns himself Emperor	5 August 1261
• Byzantine wars in the East	1302 – 1756
• Byzantine–Venetian Wars	1305 – 1699
• Byzantine–Hungarian Wars	1481 – 1626
• Sacking of Constantinople	9 April 1734
• Greek Revolution	26 June 1771 – 14 February 1779
Population
• 1500	12,000,000
Currency	Hyperpyron
Preceded by Succeeded by Roman Empire Nicene Empire Latin Empire Ottoman Sultanate Ramadanid Emirate

The Byzantine Empire, also known as the Eastern Roman Empire or Byzantium, was a continuation of the Roman Empire in its eastern provinces, following the West's collapse in the 5th century. With its capital city at Constantinople, the Byzantine Empire survived the fall of the Western Roman Empire and continued to exist until its fall in 1779, not including a period from 1204 to 1261 when the city was taken by the Latin Empire. After its restoration in 1261, the Byzantine Empire endured numerous challenges to its authority during the 13th and early 14th centuries, though following the Anatolian Crusade (1352–1357), narrowly evaded deposition and over the course of centuries would gradually rise to become a central power in the Mediterranean during the early Modern period.

Following the Byzantine empire's initial dissolution following the Fourth Crusade, monarch Michael VII Palaiologos of Nicaea would coup the Latin emperor of Constantinople, Baldwin II, on the night of 24 July 1261. The armies of Nicaea would advance upon Constantinople, reclaiming the former capital under a restored empire following Michael VII's coronation in August that same year. His institutional and education reforms would lead to the Palaiologan Renaissance, lasting from roughly the 13th to 15th centuries. The death of emperor Michael VIII in Pachomios, Thrace in December 1282, would lead to his son Andronikos II succeeding his authority. Ruling for 46 years, he spent much of reign in conflict against the Turks of Asia Minor or against the Latin empire, which had been re-organized during the early 14th century. During the finals years of his reign, Andronikos II fought a civil war (1321–1328) against his son and co-emperor Andronikos III, whom had previously usurped his father and former co-emperor, Michael IX, authority. Despite being disowned by Andronikos II, Andronikos III would eventually succeed his grandfather, who would retire to a monastery in defeat. Andronikos III's reign primarily constituted continued defeats against the rising Ottoman sultanate, and upon the end of his reign, the empire fall once again into civil war.

The Byzantine civil war of 1441–1447 had been the most devastating in the dynasty's history, as it featured numerous members vying for power. The most predominant of which being Andronikos III's son John V and general John VI Kantakouzenos. Facing invasions from the Latin Empire, Serbia, and the Ottomans, the Byzantine realm had all but fallen into chaos. The Byzantine civil war would eventually come to a formal conclusion upon emperor John VI death after attempting to besiege Constantinople in 1347, leaving John V as the sole emperor. During the late 1340s, the Byzantine empire would succumb to the spread of the black plague, which would decimate the populations centered around the silk road. In 1351, the Ottomans would form a coalition with the other Turks of Anatolia in an invasion of Thrace, crossing the Aegean that year and occupying the Tzympe fortress. The invasion of the Ottomans into Europe would ring alarms across mainland Europe, with Pope Clement V in response forming a coalition of Catholic nations in proclamation of a crusade to be made. The formation of the Holy League would lead to emperor John V accepting unjust demands for Catholic army placements, but would accept a short-term alliance with the Latin Empire to combat the Ottomans. After crushing the Ottoman armies while the Ottoman rule fell into civil war, the Holy League alongside the empire had emerged victorious by 1357, being returned core territories that had been conquered decades prior.

The restoration of the Byzantine empire as a naval power in the Mediterranean would spark a bitter rivalry between the Palaiologos dynasty and the ruling Doge of the Venetian Republic. In the late 14th century, the Byzantine empire had engaged militarily with Venice on numerous occasions, leading to the empire successfully seizing the island of Rhodes in 1374 and initiating rebellions within Venetian colonies across the Black Sea. Following the death of emperor John V in 1391, he would be succeeded by his sons Andronikos IV and John VII, whom would rule during a time of great panic and crisis as a result of the conqueror, Timur, and his invasions of neighboring kingdoms. In hopes of preventing war, Andronikos IV would challenge to Timur to a duel in 1403, but after losing the duel, would be kidnapped and in the following year, numerous Byzantine cities across Anatolia would be sacked and besieged.

Following Timur's sacking of Anatolia, the Byzantine empire in the early 15th century would fall into turmoil after the assassination of emperor John VII after being poisoned. The Byzantine empress of John VII, Irene of Dobruja, would appoint herself regent to the still young Herodotus, the heir-apparent to position of emperor. This would lead to a dispute between Irene and Manuel Palaiologos, the son of former emperor John V. Tension would ultimately brew upon Manuel's arrival in Constantinople, leading to him arresting the assassins of John VII as well as usurping rule from Irene, having the Byzantine senate appoint him as co-Emperor Manuel II. As co-emperor for three years, Manuel II's reign would be occupied with an invasion from the Despot of Dobruja, whom invaded to free and re-assert Irene and Herodotus on the imperial throne. After the city of Varna would fall to the empire and the Despot being forced to surrender, Manuel II would depart by sea to Constantinople, being assassinated by the Esovestiaritai (Imperial Bodyguards), whom would free the 15-year old Herodotus and anoint him as sole emperor.

Ruling for 41 years, emperor Herodotus I's early reign consisted of attempts to have him assassinated or him actively purging the bureaucracy and Palaiologoi. Shortly after appointing John VIII as co-Emperor in an attempt to prevent further civil war, Herodotus would later make an attempt at assassinating emperor John VIII by members of the Medici family, though this conspiracy would later be unraveled and spark another civil war. After deposing John VIII following the Battle of Nicomedia (1413), as well as imprisoning numerous members of the Palaiologoi, Herodotus ruled as sole emperor officially, and would rule solely for the remainder of his tenure. Moving to assert personal control over the politics of the empire, Herodotus would establish numerous advisory and petitionary assemblies, abolishing the ancient Roman senate and forming the Body of Colleges in its place. These reforms at the time were revolutionary, and during the reign of Herodotus I, the Body of Colleges would past numerous reforms that would impact Byzantine society for decades. Despite these reforms, much of Herodotus I's reign was spent in war. After instigating a trade war with the Republic of Venice, the Byzantines would engage with numerous Italian and Latin states in the Second Byzantine-Venetian War (1423-1426), ending with Venice ceding the territories of Crimea and leading to Orthodox uprisings across the neighboring Catholic nations. In particular, the Achaean Revolt (1434–1437) is believed to have been funded by spies and military advisors from the Byzantine empire, though it has never been confirmed or acknowledged by the Palaiologoi more than likely in an effort to prevent another crusade.

Palaiologoi dynasty (1261–1643)

Empire in peril

Anatolia in 1300 AD.

In 1297, Nogai Khan would call upon his allies, including the Byzantine Empire, in war against Prince Wenceslaus II. Initially hesitant to aid Nogai Khan as the newly-Catholic Khanate could easily become a weapon of the Pope, Emperor Andronikos II Palaiologos was elated that the otherwise heathen Mongolians have found salvation in the Lord, regardless of if they follow a Pope or an Ecumenical Patriarch. Perceived as a war against the barbarian claimants of the former Western empire, the emperor provided 15,000 troops to aid Nogai Khan. Having been rejected by the Pope, Nogai would recognize the Ecumenical Patriarch and convert to Eastern Orthodoxy the following year, later being successful in lifting the siege of Lublin by 1299. Opposite to the east, the empire would form an alliance with Genoa, though despite Genoese demands, trade would continue with the Venice Republic. An unpopular alliance amongst other Mediterranean states, the Kingdom of Naples would forge an alliance with the Venetians in order to counter the Genoa-Byzantine Alliance in 1300, with Achaea later joining.

The Battle of Kangal, 1304.

In 1302, the Sultanate of Rum would utterly collapse with its defeat at the hands of the Ottomans. No longer able to restore order, it shatters into numerous Beyliks vying for power in Anatolia. The Ottomans launch an invasion of Byzantine Bithynia that same year, with the largest battle – the Battle of Bapheus – ending in a crushing Ottoman victory, effectively capturing the region for the Ottomans. In response, Byzantium would ally with Armenian Cilicia to combat the Beyliks, though by 1304, Ephesus and Smyrna had both been seized by the Beylik of Aydin. Financial disruption would lead to Chios being ceded from the empire as a colony of Genoa, though it would later be donated back. After a crushing defeat at the hands of the Nogai Horde and Cilicia, the Ottoman Sultanate would fall into an internal crisis between the Sultan's sons Orhan and Aladdin. This blow against the Muslim Beyliks proved the most decisive for emperor Andronikos II, who managed to seize much former Rum territory in Anatolia from Aydin, Saruhan and Osman, pushing them farther east. Upon the crushing defeat inflicted upon the Ottomans by Nogai, the emperor would hold a parade and ceremony for him in Constantinople, being proclaimed it's "Savior".

Historians believe that the declining state of the Byzantine Empire had been temporarily halted by the reconquest of Western Turkey in 1305, but to it's north, Bulgaria had initiated an invasion on the empire with support from the Republic of Venice and other Catholic allies. With control re-established over the city of Nicomedia, a new tax would be created for merchants traveling between the Mediterranean to the Black Sea with the intent of funding the conflict. As Bulgarian troops neared the city of Adrianople, the second-most important city of the empire, the low-numbered byzantine troops had prepared resourcefully for the siege, being slightly boosted with 2,000 Cilician soldiers. Through a supposed act of God, more than 10,000 Bulgarians would be slaughtered, while less than 1,000 Byzantines casualties would be reported, successfully defending the city and stopping the Bulgarian incursion. A lavish and excellent celebration at the Hagia Sophia would follow, though a mourning period for months would reportedly take place over the soldiers who died. The 2,000 Bulgarians that had been captured by the hasty Bulgar retreat would be executed.

Despite miracle victories, the Byzantines began losing ground in the Aegean Sea around 1306 after they pulled out their forces to fight Bulgaria, allowing the Ottomans to take back some of Bythnia under the leadership of Sultan Orhan. From their base in Chios donated by Genoa, the Hospitaller Knights begin attacking Byzantine holdings in Kos and Rhodes. The fall of Rhodes would additionally lead to countless raids against the Byzantine empire that cost them immensely. Upon the forming of the Bulgarian-Achaea Alliance that same yuear, Achaea would begin a separate campaign against the Byzantines led by Nicholas III of Saint Omer. In response to these major losses and foreign invasions, Emperor Andronikos II would personally lead the defensive armies in Bulgaria while General Ioannes of Nicaea defended the Achaean borders, but due to the brutal battles, a small plague would infect the city of Thessalonica, which killed 5,000 residents, and at one point it was reported that the emperor himself had gotten influenza. In October, King Robert I of Albania would send a diplomatic emissary to the emperor in hopes of forming an alliance, which would later be accepted in 1307.

The Latin victory at Mystras, 1310.

By 1308, there totaled 11,000 Byzantine soldiers invading Achaea. That same year, the trade tax between the Bosporus Strait would be lighted for the first time since its own inception three years prior. Michael Kurkuas, an Epirote noble, would defend against the Byzantine onslaught in Achaea. However, the 17,000-strong force under Kurkuas would successfully push the outnumbered Byzantines back to their lands, across the Pentadaktylos range. Pursuing the Byzantines through a mountain pass between Kalamata and Mystras, the Latin forces would encircle the smaller Greek force in the rural areas outside Mystras. Having captured a large part of the city previously and routed the Byzantine army, the army under Kurkuas would launch numerous attacks on the hold-out parts of Mystras from his base of operations in the city's fortifications, seizing Mystras by 1310. The Latin forces, having defeated the Byzantines in three subsequent years and routed the enemy from the Morea, would integrate the region after suppressing a small resistance to their conquest.

Andronikos III was Emperor and Autocrat of the Romans from 1328 to 1341.

Following the difficult loss, Andronikos II would spend much of the 1310s until early 1320s suppressing numerous rebellions against his rule, as well leading numerous successful defenses in Bithynia. In 1321, after the death of co-Emperor Michael IX, his son Andronikos Angelos usurped the title of co-Emperor to succeed him, initiating an uprising against Andronikos II. After the emperor disowned Andronikos, Andronikos would rally support in Thrace and Macedonia as rival emperor in 1321, beginning the Byzantine civil war of 1321–1328. During the civil war, the Catalan Company proceeds to invade the Byzantine Empire around Thessaly, and establish a new Latin state called the Duchy of Neopatria. As a result of mounting defeats and mutinies, Andronikos II would eventually concede defeat, leading Andronikos to reign as co-emperor Andronikos III. Andronikos III would lead the empire in forming an alliance with Bulgaria under the Treaty of Chernomen. In 1328, Adronikos II would attempt to depose Andronikos III, but ultimately failed and he later retired to a monastery.

Having recovered from their previous instability, the Sultanate of Osman would invade Kastromou and Byzantium. After the decisive Battle of Pelekanon, most of Bythinia would fall under their control. During the Ottoman invasion, a famine would strike across the Mediterranean states of Iberia, Naples, and Byzantium, being a late-stage aftershock of the 1315 famine of decades earlier. By 1336, the spice trade from the far east would be severely disrupted, with the nations largely dependent on eastern Mediterranean trade, such as Venice, Cyprus, Byzantium, Romania, and Hungary, being cut off from receiving the silk road from that direction, leading to an economic crisis in the empire amidst numerous defeats to Ottoman Sultan Orhan. In 1338, the Ottomans would capture the city of Nicomedia from the empire, further encroaching upon Constantinople. Reaching old age, Emperor Adronikos III would die in 1341, plunging the empire into a devastating civil war between different members of the Palaiologan Dynasty, namely his son and the son of his co-Emperor, Michael VIII.

Crusade of the Holy League

As the civil war broke out, Latin Romania would send 15,000 men alongside other allied reinforcements to march on lands held by John VI, the pretender to the Byzantine throne, who controls large parts of Thessaly and Macedonia. The Latin armies would besiege Berea, engage in a battle in the countryside outside of the city, with naval support from their allied fleet alongside those of our allied partners. Blockaded, and with an additional embargo imposed on the city of Thessalonica, the Latin army would eventually occupy Thessalonica in 1343. Emperor William of Romania would later vassalize the territories under a restored Kingdom of Thessalonica. In desperation, Emperor John VI establishes alliances abroad to restore his military in fighting back against the revolting regency, leading him to recruiting 15,000 Turkish mercenaries from the Ottomans to support his campaign in Rodope while he also established an alliance with Dušan the Mighty, leading Serbia to invade the Latin Empire with 30,000 troops through Epirus to cut them off from Albania.

With the chaos of war going on in the Byzantine and Latin Empires and the expansions of the Turks, the Knights Hospitaller and the Kingdom of Cyprus petition to form a maritime league of Catholic nations for protecting Latin people in the Greek world. This would lead to the formation of the Latin League between the Knights, Cyprus, Latin Romania, and the Duchy of Neopatria. Seizing advantage of the chaos, Dušan would switch-sides on the Byzantines, occupying territory in Macedonia though would be forced into continuing military engagements with the Latin forces. The Byzantine civil war comes to an end when Emperor John VI dies attempting to besiege Constantinople in 1347. John V assumes control over what remains of the Empire, and sends his own 10,000 troops in defense against both Serbia and Romania, though by this point the conflict had devolved between them, with John V seeing this as a sign of good things to come. During the late 1340s, the Byzantine empire would succumb to the spread of the black plague, which would decimate vast populations centered in significant trade cities.

In 1351, the Ottomans would lead a coalition of Turkic beyliks in order to occupy Byzantine cities along the Adriatic sea, with direct conflict being declared. That same year, the Ottomans would send their military across the Dardanelles to land in Europe for the first time in their history. In order to secure control over the rapidly-dwindling Byzantine Empire, Emperor John V purged a dozen different former regents and advisers who were loyal to the rival Emperor John VI. Regardless, he still suffered from ongoing defeats at the hands of the Ottoman Sultanate, who scores their first victory on European soil at the Battle of Demotika while Suleyman Pasha would secure control over Tzympe, the first Ottoman territory in Europe. After hearing about the Ottoman Turks crossing the Dardanelles and landing in Europe, Pope Clement V would witness the necessity of the Christian nations to be prepared in case of the Muslims are able of occupy permanently an European territory in this region, and call for the creation of a Holy League to counter their expansion. This military league, responsible to fight against any heretical and heathen that threatens Christendom, would make their first opponent to be the Ottomans in Anatolia. Prior to Clement V's death in 1352, his last wish while alive would see Cardinal Capoci writes to the Kingdom of Cyprus, Kingdom of Arles, Duchy of Savoy, Neopatria and Knights of Rodes asking for their participation in the Holy League, with all but Arles accepting. In 1353, Hungary and the Teutonic Order would commit to the Holy League, followed by pope Victor IV's hiring of numerous Swiss mercenaries and other militants from the Swiss Confederacy. Upon Latin Romania's joining in 1354 marking the final days of preparation, the Byzantine emperor John V would hesitantly accept a complex marriage alliance to counter the Ottomans with Emperor William of Romania.

At the start of the year in 1554, the Gallipoli earthquake would occur causing multiple breaches in the longstanding fortress in the area leaving it open to attack. The Ottomans, seizing the opportunity, begin marching into eastern Thrace. This succession of events would lead to the Pope calling all members of the Holy League to act now and expel the Ottomans from Eastern Europe, though many would not be campaign that year and instead use it to ensure proper encampments. Emperor John V demands that the Pope should respect the integrity of the Byzantine Empire, and insists that the Crusader military should not remain on Roman lands for any long period of time. Furthermore, he says that any reclaimed Turkish territory should be ceded back to the Empire, but upon the death of Pope Victor IV early in the year and with the Papal States at war, the conclave election cycle had slowed immeasurably. Cardinal Capoci would write to the Byzantine emperor telling him that Pope Victor is dead and that he, as cardinal, don't have authority over the Holy League. He could only promise that after the conclave the new pope will answer him and asks the participation of the Byzantines in the efforts of the League to defeat the Ottomans, this way helping end this conflict more quickly. Emperor John V would ultimately concede to support the crusaders fight against Ottomans under an agreement that the new Bishop of Rome will respect his demands and that the Holy League commanders relocate their military encampments to nearby Latin states instead of Thrace.

Crusaders in the Holy League engaging with the Ottoman army under Suleyman in Cyzicus (1355)

Opposite to Europe, the assassination of Sultan Orhan of the Ottoman Empire would lead into a civil war with Suleyman seizing control of the coast near Gallipoli at the city of Cyzicus, and the rest assumed by his younger brother Murad, in alliance to his youngest brother Ibrahim. Suleyman would take command of the remaining military retreating from Thrace while Murad would raise a massive a far larger army at home, which he sends to Cyzicus to capture Suleyman. Taking advantage of the weakened sultanate, Nicholas of Wallachia would send additional forces to bolster Byzantine armies fighting in Thrace. Upon Pope Innocent VI's ascension to power in 1356, the Ottomans had lost significant forces and some territory but managed to hold out a strong defense against the crusaders. With Suleyman now dead following the Holy League's capture of Cyzicus, Murad would assume the role as the new Ottoman sultan. That same year, a letter from the pope would assure the emperor John V that the lands of Thrace and other Ottoman lands will be ceded back to them following the crusade, which would lead to John V immediately invade near the fields of Nicomedia. After Murad's failed defense of Bursa and capture of the sultan, Emperor John V would formally dissolve the sultanate and assumes direct control over the Theme of Bithynia, in accordance to his deal with the Pope. With the threat of the Ottomans destroyed, the crusader armies would be forced out by the emperor, citing security concerns.

Imperial restoration

Following the dramatic end to the Anatolian Crusade, renewed trade from Asia and as part of the silk road would lead to block printing reaching the empire, with historian Nicephorus Gregoras completed his work Byzantine History, covering the eras from 1204 to the present day. During the 1360s, Latin Romania would continue to invade and subjugate the various Beyliks of Anatolia that had remained despite the Ottoman collapse. The Byzantine empire would seize the opportunity to expand further as well, with emperor John V appointing the general Alexios Apokaukos to lead numerous campaigns across Anatolia, and following his success in occupying parts of Saruhan, proved to be a supremely effective commander. By 1365, Alexios Apokaukos had completed his campaign to secure control over Saruhan. As a result of emperor John V asserting further control over the Byzantine Themes of the Ionoian coast, he would diplomatically attempt to resolve the cold war with Latin Romania through partitioning the territories of Anatolia. Latin Romania would decline, with the collapse of local governments from the Turkish Beyliks causing general confusion and unrest in the far eastern portions of these recently-conquered territories, much of which comprised sporadic uprisings from local Muslim populations against their recent subjugation by the Latin and Byzantine Empires. John V, keenly aware of the many threats arrayed against his state begins a massive reorganization of state power, granting the Praetors rights to vote in setting governing precedent.

In 1372, the Politeia is engraved in marble in the Forum of Constantine for all to see and read, and is seen historically as a proto-constitution namely based on it's division of power between the Palaiologos dynasty and the Bureaucracy. Among bureaucratic reform, taxation is simplified and enforcement increases dramatically as tax collectors are made more internally accountable and their roles are standardized, with Theodore I being appointed Co-Quaestor to investigate and audit corruption regarding taxation, fraud, and embezzlement. Andronikos IV, eldest son of John V and Junior-Emperor, is additionally granted the old title of Magister Militum, Master of the Troops. Due to mounting Turkic uprisings in Anatolia, the emperor would discover through a spy that the House of Osman under Murad had continued their war against the Byzantine and Latin armies in hiding.

The declaration of war by Venice against Padania in the early 1370s would lead to polarization amongst the assembly, with some seeing it as a declaration of war while others did not wish to wage war while dealing with open rebellions across Anatolia. While John V considered his options, Andronikos IV would gather the Tagmata in secret, and with support from a portion of the Roman navy, would besiege the Venetian-held islands in the Aegean. Aided by only 2,000 soldiers and general Georgius Stauricius, they would spend the following two years in a dense and long campaign on the island. John V, being made aware of Andronikos IV's actions, would formally elevate him to Co-emperor in hopes of preventing a civil war, and would gather support from neighboring countries such as Thessaly and Trebizond to aid in their attack. John V would then dispatches Zeno Akropolites, 1,000 men, and 12 ships to take Venetian holdings in Crimea or support a revolt against the Venetians there.

The capture of Rhodes in 1374.

In 1374, a citizen revolt would takes place in Rhodes as the Greek population, fed up with the scorched earth policies Venice uses all the time, would work with the Byzantines to overrun whatever fortifications are left on the island. With the fall of Rhodes to the army under Andronikos IV it had become clear that the empire can soundly defeat the Venetians in battle. With the island secured, a garrison would be left while Andronikos IV ferried his remaining men and his siege equipment to Eubea. This is facilitated by the combined Roman-Trebizond Fleet which had yet to engage the Venetian Navy in pitched battle. In Crimea, John V is reinforced by Alexios III of Trebizond and 1,500 men. This swings the battle more decidedly in favor of the attackers who begin to make progress against the personal retainers of the Venetians in the region. During the campaign, John V would arrange a marriage between his son Manuel Palaiologos and one of Alexios’ daughters to secure a more permanent alliance. Meanwhile, the Roman Navy gathered in Constantinople where it rendezvous with the Trebizond Navy and the ships of willing subjects of the empire who sought glory against the Venetians. By the end of the year however, Padanian efforts to make peace with Venice would lead to John V sending a delegation to jointly find peace.

The end of the war with Venice would marked in the empire's history as a "great victory", with John V and Andronikos IV holding a large ceremony in the capital of Constantinople. Despite negotiations not having been completed, Rhodes would be integrated into the Theme system and quickly made a full province. In Crimea, a puppet government is established under the rule of a regional governor who reports directly to the Emperor. Rather than hire new bureaucrats, John and Andronikos agree to spread the current administrators over the new provinces, reducing the bureaucratic burden on the Empire. This reinforces the reforms of 1371 which are now fully taking force in peace-time. In celebration of his victories, John V would construct numerous universities, with the coming of peace allowing the economy to rebound. With peace and prosperity apparent the marriage between Manuel and Eudokia is conducted in Constantinople. The festivities are grand and Alexios and John V sit together, celebrating the marriage of their children and their victories in war. After a brief political crisis in Padania which saw tensions rise once more in the Mediterranean, John V would successfully negotiate a separate treaty with Venice for ensured peace.

With peace finally concluded with Venice by 1377, the focus in the capital returned to internal reform. The Thema are released and the Tagmata return to their duties in Constantinople, while the veteran troops of the Tagmata who were reaching the age of retirement are granted un-settled lands across north west of the empire, serving each being given a lot of 40 acres and an ox. Additionally, with the tax system streamlined and efficient, the tax burden on the peasants was reduced considerably, as new taxes on Venetian merchants drove a booming domestic merchant fleet. In 1378, the sudden incursion of Mongols in Bulgaria creates panic in the border towns as Bulgarian refugees spread word of the impressive army. Strategos Zeno Akropolites is given command of a small scouting force of 150 lightly armed horsemen and sent to Bulgaria to gather information regarding the size, composition, and organization of the Mongol forces. While Zeno Akropolites searches for the enemy, Strategos Georgius Stauricius worked feverously to develop a battle plan able to counter traditional Mongol horsemen. He studied historical accounts, ancient treatise on war, and modern descriptions of Mongol tactics before settling on a doctrine of “Combined Arms”. The tactics provided an unmounted force some means of countering the horse archers and lancers of the Golden Horde. The short economic boom would become unsteady with trade disrupted by war and production disrupted by refugees and fear of the Mongols. This fear would lead to the formation of a defensive alliance between Hungary, Serbia, and the Byzantine empire, and despite successful victories in Bulgaria, a concurrent civil war in Wallachia would continue to disrupt the trade of grain from the region.

The Battle of Kotyaion (1382).

Stabilization of the Danube valley would fail by 1381, leaving the emperor John V to open trade with the Mamluke Sultanate of Egypt. That same year, the Lithuanian commander from the Anatolian Crusade, Andrezej, would petition the Byzantine emperor John V to support his attempt at seizing the Lithuanian throne for himself. The plea from Andrezej fell largely upon unsympathetic ears in Constantinople, and John V would later imprison Andrezej for his ties with officials within Latin Romania. In 1382, emperor John V would enact the policy of Anakatáktisi (Reconquest) in Asia Minor, raising the Tagmata and invading the Germiyanid sultanate. In 1382, commanders Zeno Akropolites and Georgius Stauricius would besiege the city of Germiyanid capital of Kotyaion, forcing the armies to surrender and leading to civil war in the kingdom after the capture and execution of the Sultan, Süleyman. The capture of Süleyman and the fall of his capital would allow the Byzantines to annex the kingdom, though faced resistance in the form of insurrectionists. As per the policy, the land recently acquired would be stripped from the nobility and distributed amongst Orthodox Greeks and Armenians, and despite not imposing unjust taxes on the Muslim population, the empire would enforce conversions upon the nobility by either stripping their possessions and titles in an effort to marginalize the Muslim nobility and their influence. Throughout the 1380s, trade and economic success would begin a cultural revival of poetry and art, as well as leading developments in the fields of science and mathematics following the acceptance of Arabian astronomical research. In 1384, the Byzantine navy would assist Poland-Lithuania in securing the Dnieper river in exchange for future aid in the Byzantine conquest of Crimea, which emperor John V would accept.

The work of Shams Al-Din Al-Khalji is first introduced to the empire in August of 1385, and his tables translated into Greek. During this time, the great walls of Constantinople would be updated and expanded immeasurably, funded by the booming economy. In the capital, the cultural revival continued, with newly-enriched merchants carving out estates in the suburban areas just inside the walls of the city. They commission great works of art to embellish and decorate their homes, largely in the form of classical sculpture. The spending of these vast fortunes, as well as the charitable work done by several notable merchants does a great deal to improve the historically negative image of the merchant class. In 1386, a coalition of wealthy silk traders led by Filippos Anastakis bring a petition to emperor John V and Andronikos IV demanding new rights within the empire, reduced state involvement, and greater access to the Emperor themselves. Rather than accept the limited demands of the single merchant guild, John V and his son determine to establish a forum in which the various merchant guilds can present positions, debate, and be judged by the emperor in a more formal and permanent setting. Filippos Anastakis is invited to return with his supporters at the first of these Syndikáto Empóron’ which are to be held twice a year. In due time, Filippos' and several similar petitions are presented at the first of the Syndikáto Empóron. Accordingly, John and Andronikos decree that merchants will be allowed greater freedoms within the empire, but fines and punishments for the breaking of laws are increased. The creation of this new member in imperial rule comes as a direct result of Andronikos IV' interest in the Platonic and Aristotelian ideal of balanced education. Thus, he would influence his father considerably in organizing society along functional class lines: the church, the administration, the peasantry, merchants, and the military. Andronikos IV would state in forum with John V, "The function of the Basileus is to balance the interests of these classes against the interests of the empire as a collective".

As demand for luxuries falls substantially in both France and Spain, its replaced by demand for war materials like steel, iron, and weapons, leading to a rise in merchants across the empire being given free reign to sell military supplies to the warring powers. Despite this setback, the Patriarch of Constantinople, Nilus Kerameus, orders the recreation of artifacts damaged in the 4th Crusade and a renovation of the Hagia Sophia. By 1387, the reconstruction of the Theodosian Walls consumes emperor John V who is increasingly focused on their completion to secure his legacy. His dedication to the walls results in a clear decline in his health as he regularly travels to review the site. His son and co-Emperor Andronikos IV thus is forced to take-over most of the daily tasks of governing, and increasingly is seen as the source of power in the empire. After news from the Kingdom of Poland-Lithuania and Georgia of the Steppe hordes is bleak, emperor John V becomes wary of sending more men to die while Andronikos IV is much more supportive of an intervention. Andronikos IV would then gather a reasonably significant force led by Georgius Stauricius numbering 1,000 Tagmata and 3,000 additional levies, marching north along the coast of the Black Sea to face the Steppe threat. King Wladyslaw of Poland accepts the support, and commander Georgius Stauricius of Constantinople would be sent to provide logistical support to the coalition forces against Timur.

The preparation for war leads to work halting on the Hagia Sophia as the patriarch agrees to redirect church funds to expediting the rebuilding of the Theodosian Walls. The Blachernae Walls are also rebuilt. In 1389, the defeat of the Rus at Moscow left much concern towards the empire, with the news of the Martyrs of Christendom reaching Constantinople through whispered word and solemn song. The attack strikes a certain degree of panic into Roman merchants and citizens in Crimea. Thousands flock to Theodosia and Bosporos seeking safety in the cities’ walls. Emperor Andronikos IV and his men, accompanied by an additional 4,000 Dorbujan and Wallachian soldiers arrive at the Danube at the border between Wallachia and Dobruja. There they begin reinforcing the fortress at Tulcea and construct a series of smaller outposts along the gap between the Carpathians and Tulcea along the Siret River. Following the death of Alexios III, John V's second son Manuel is summoned to succeed his authority amongst the military bureaucracy, and as a loyal supporter of John V, prevents a civil war. After news of the victory against Timur at Novgorod, emperor John V reduces the initial provisions put in place out of panic. Andronikos IV, as bold as ever, decides now is the time to strike east. He would raise an army around the core forces he took northward and marches on Candar. With more than 12,000 men and supported by a fleet of 30 war galleys and 50 merchant ships, the force assaults the Beylik’s capital, besieging it.

Timur's invasion

On the eve of 1391, John V would die in his sleep. While many attempts had been made to prevent a civil war, his grandson John VII would seize the throne of Constantinople while Andronikos IV was campaigning against Candar. Fearing a coup, John VII would gather a retinue of loyal soldiers and is crowned early in the morning of January 9th. He quickly sends word to his father to inform him of his father’s death, as well as his own coronation. Andronikos IV, having smashed the Cadaharid Beylik rushes home to attend his father’s funeral as well as confront his son. Andronikos IV, tempered by the passage of time, agrees to respect his son’s decision, and issues a decree that henceforth, when the father and son are both of age to rule, they shall rule as co-Emperor. Andronikos IV would cite the Consuls of old Rome, recalling the wisdom and resiliency of a second ruler and accepts his son’s coronation to status as a co-Emperor. With civil war prevented, John VII would marry the Princess Irene of Dobruja. With the success of the Byzantine empire on the Pontic coast, the Hamadid Dynasty would form the remaining Turkic Beyliks into a coalition to protect against any Christian nation, jointly controlled by them and the Karamanids. Rather than fight the combined forces of the allied Turkish Beyliks, emperor Andronikos IV would send an envoy to the Hamadid sultan, congratulating the Bey on his diplomatic domination of the much larger Karamanid Beylik at an important gathering of dignitaries. Further envoys arrive in Teke, and would successfully deceiving the sultan into invade the Hamadids and dissolving their coalition to infighting. Although wary of Latin deception, Andronikos IV and John VII decide to form a mutual defense pact in 1392 with the Latin Empire, primarily against the Muslim invaders.

The resurgence of trade supported a renewed interest in ancient works, particularly those of Democritus, Euclid, and Pythagoros. The teachings of these philosopher-physicists inspired many merchants to invest a significant amount of leisure time to unraveling the secrets of the universe. Philoponian Impetus is conceptually revived in 1394 and discussed in depth. These philosophical debates spread with the merchants to other parts of the Greek-speaking world where they would revive the concept of Hellenism in this new era. The Nicean Empire had made significant use of this idea decades prior to justify reconquest against the Latins. The same year, the long disused Hippodrome would become a renewed center of public sport sponsored by several prominent Hellenoi, the Hellenic-influenced merchants. The sponsors determine to hold yearly games in the format of the ancient Olympiad, with running, wrestling, and the Pentathlon. All Greek-speaking people are given opportunity to participate and all are welcome to spectate the events. In 1395, the Latin Patriarch Paul Palaiologos Tagaris would die of malnutrition. His will insisted on having a grand mausoleum created, honoring his magnificent deeds as Patriarch of Jerusalem, Constantinople, and the Churches east of Durazzo, son of a Byzantine Emperor, and Imperial Pontiff of the New Rome. Among his possessions were sketched designs of flag for "New Jerusalem". Despite this, the designs would go unused for more than a century until the beginning of the Reformation when it's believed they were used as inspiration for numerous emblems used in the Ratian Union's insignia. In response to the growing Hellenic movement in the city, Andronikos IV would quadruple public support for education in an attempt to revive and modernize the ancient educational systems within the empire. Much like the Pope, emperor Andronikos IV would open the borders of the Empire to Christians from throughout the Middle East, sending a blanket offer to help settle them safely in the borders of the Empire. A census completed the following year concluded that more than 13,000 Christians had migrated through Anatolia.

The Anastasis of Christ, created during the height of the Palaiologoi Renaissance (c. 1400)

The sudden increase in public education spending, coupled with high military spending over the last decade result in strain on the imperial treasury. To compensate, incentives that had been placed upon merchants to do business in Turkish ports would be withdrawn and leasing costs on imperial merchant ships would increase. Careful to avoid raising taxes on the peasantry, the cultural rebirth in the empire would become mostly limited to the very wealthy, though trade with the various Italian states would lead to the Balkans becoming the largest center of Renaissance culture by 1400. This would lead to numerous previously-undiscovered works of ancient philosophy, theology, and literature being discovered and copied into less archaic Greek. During this time, open lands in Europe and Anatolia were filled with new settlement requiring a massive reconstruction of Imperial infrastructure, which would lead to emperor Andronikos IV ordering an examination of the ancient Roman road network so that its construction may be determined and recreated without the expertise of the ancient masters. With this, old and worn roads would be entirely rebuilt, connecting Constantinople with the European and Anatolian provinces of the empire. This endeavor would last four years, but would lead to emperor Andronikos IV proclaiming that "all Greek merchants from the Latin Empire be granted access to subsidized leases on Imperial Merchant ships", further boosting the economy and undermining the rule of Latin Romania over Greece. It was that same year that Alexander Tagaris, a high ranking officer in the Esovestiaritai, uses his political influence to gain an audience with emperor John VII where he would propose adopting the heavier arquebus for a portion to defeat heavily armored enemy formations. Initially skeptical but after witnessing a demonstration and firing the weapons for himself, emperor John VII agreed to support the change for use in the field against enemy heavy cavalry.

In 1401, the recreation of Xenophon's On Revenues and Ways and Means as well as Demosthenes’ speeches would call forth cries of usury from the church due to the practices of these primitive institutions. Despite these exclamations, the practice continues and emperor John VII would state that he "doubts" that illegalizing it would be fully enforceable. He would later meet extensively with church authorities, deciding rather than ban the practice wholesale and provoke anger from the merchants, he and Andronikos IV agree to set limits on the rates of interest and prevent the interest from reaching half of the total principal. Though not perhaps pleasing to the church or the new banking class, the reforms are enough to satiate most on both sides. After the news of Trebizond's sack by Georgia, emperor John VII was supposedly "disheartened" due to lacking the manpower necessary to face Georgia alone. In an attempt to prevent the murder of his wife's family, Manuel would travel to Trebizond in an attempt to negotiate a settlement. Manuel, having witnessed the first repulse of the Georgian forces returns to Constantinople. He petitions his brother and nephew to reconsider, citing the strength of the Trebizondian defense. Andronikos IV, now intervening, dispatched a fleet and 4,000 men to reinforce the city. During the Byzantine arrival at Trebizond, the Imperial forces had conspired against King Manuel III of Trebizon, with commander Alexander Tagaris and his armies seizing Trebizondi ships and then sabotaging the defense of the city. It would be found that emperor John VII felt little connection with his uncle's family, being convinced that an alliance with Georgia would be more profitable, thus besieging the capital.

In 1403, Timur of Kesh would turn west for a second campaign in the Near East. While the Byzantine empire had not been involved during his initial campaign decades prior, he would demand the Kingdom of Georgia support him in a campaign to rampage across Anatolia to pillage the Christian Kingdoms, now that they had fully annexed Trebizond. Namely, his goals were the cities of Nicaea, Sardis, and Aydin, though some historians believed he may have wanted to conquer Constantinople. In an effort to distract Timur, emperor John VII transports an army to Taurica while preparations for an immediate invasion are made. During this time, the Byzantine emperors would seek support from much of eastern Europe, though it's unknown if these attempts succeeded. Regardless, the army mustered in Theodosia numbered over 10,000 Romans, being sent to besiege the city of Taphros. The terror of Timur would lead to an internal crisis within the empire, with cities in Anatolian beginning a massive evacuation eastward, with nearly the entire noble population of Anatolia fleeing to Europe where they organized Greece.

Separate of the empire, Andronikos IV had made his own preparations for the eventuality that Timur continues his conquest of Anatolia. By now an aged man of 55 years, he loathed the idea that his conquests in Anatolia squandered and laid waste too, ending everything they built. Gathering a personal retinue of 50 men, his best armor and equipment, and a beautiful set of banners bearing his emblem, a golden eagle with two heads, he rode quickly to meet Timur’s army at the border of the Roman Empire, near the city of Soma. There, Andronikos IV would challenge Timur himself to a duel of single combat, on foot each with a single sword. In tradition, Andronikos IV is believed to have said to Timur, “Though you are known throughout the world as the killer of kings, I wonder how many you have actually slain. We are both warriors at heart, and though your achievements in battle outstrip mine, we have stood before a beaten foe many times before. In that regard we are alike, you and I, and in another life we may even have been friends. Should you best me here today you could rightfully claim the ancient mantle of Rome, older than those titles to which you were denied by birth, but if I prevail, your army should turn away and bear its fallen Timur home so that you may lay in the lands of your people.”

Timur's army sacking the city of Aydin, 1404.

In a duel of fates, emperor Andronikos IV would lose in battle, being immediately kidnapped along with his royal guards and taken as a prisoner with Timur upon his return to Samarkhand. In 1404, Timur would lay siege to the cities of Aydin and Sardis with Georgian support, setting fire to the city of Nicaea and sacking all of Anatolia. Satisfied with his conquests, he would turn eastward, never to return to Anatolia in his lifetime. Following Timur's devastation of Anatolia, many local Turkish populations begin to seize the opportunity of asserting more autonomy for themselves, attempting to re-establish the former Beyliks. The presumed death of emperor Andronikos IV would lead to emperor John VII ruling individually, spending the majority of his time in Constantinople tending to the affairs of the state or in the field with his armies. The Turkish revolt was expected by the senate given the nature of Timur’s invasion, and over the following years would systematically crush Turkish resistance in Roman Asia Minor. During this time, Georgia's expansion westward had effectively alienated their Orthodox trading partners of the Black Sea, instigating a rivalry with the Byzantine Empire and later negotiating trade with the Republic of Venice. In response to the Venetian efforts to monopolize trade from Georgia, emperor John VII demanded efforts to curtail their influence, beginning by declaring that all non-Roman ships traversing the Dardanelles to stop in Constantinople and instituting a harbor tax on Venetian ships.

Reign of Herodotus I

In 1405, The master philosopher Gemistus Pletho began to accrue a following of Aristopythagorians, which consisted of those whom attempt to reconcile the differences between Aristotle and Pythagoreans. Rejecting many Roman tenants of empire, preferring the Hellenistic traditions of Alexander the Great or ancient Athens, his ideas would be considered a challenge to authority by many older proponents of the empire though would resonate among a large number of younger men in the bureaucracy and emperor John VII himself. The emperor didn't see the rise of new philosophical concepts as heretic much to the dismay of the old bureaucracy and many priests, which would spiral into a conspiracy to assassinate the emperor years' later. Still, the wealth of Constantinople had supported a thriving community of intellectuals, philosophers, and scientists. These men and women contributed to the Palaiologan Renaissance, and led to further debate within the church as a growing movement sought to reconcile and adopt Platonic and Aristatelian principles to church ideals forms. Attempting to apply ethics and logic from the ancient philosophers to church teachings and draw positive conclusions, the theology within the empire began to shift away from the mysticism of previous rulers, and by the end of the decade, mysticism had come to be represented by only a small minority of theologians.

By 1407, the growing economic tensions between Venice and the Byzantine empire had lead to more aggressive trade practices throughout the Black and Aegean Seas. Greek, already a major language in the area, would become entrenched as the language of trade in nearly all of the Black Sea. Before emperor John VII could respond to the Venetian escalation, he would die un-expectantly during an Easter Sunday ceremony that year. His untimely death would leave behind two heirs without any designated succession between them. Initially, empress Irene of Dobruja would lead her to accepting authority over the nation while she raised John VII's eldest son Herodotus, however, many among the merchant class and aristocracy found the queen improper due to her "less-than-impressive intellect and [her] backwardness". Manuel Palaiologos, son of John V, and uncle of the now deceased John VII, would arrive in Constantinople in an attempt to prevent a full-on revolt and in the process, unraveled the conspiracy of John VII's death, executing Paulus Ducas, a radical Christian that confessed to poisoning John VII, as well as arresting aristocrats in the bureaucracy that had enabled it. Persuaded by the senate, empress Irene would declare Manuel an enemy of the state, causing a power struggle within the capital. Unable to ensure the loyalty of even the Esovestiaritai (Imperial bodyguards), Irene and her children would flee the capital for Dobruja, and with aid from the Kingdom of Wallachia, would invade the empire in order to secure the rule of her son. Manuel, a seasoned military general, would personally lead a counter-offensive against Irene's army, defeating them and capturing Irene along with Herodotus. They would later be imprisoned in Constantinople, with Manuel proclaiming himself co-Emperor Manuel II and the regent to Herodotus. This ultimately however, lead to direct conflict with the Principality of Wallachia, a remnant of Second Bulgarian Empire, of which the empire had been under friendly terms with and had been part in the Crusade of the Holy League decades prior.

Following the Dobrujan army's return, Despot Tertius would raise a new army in defiance of emperor Manuel II, demanding that Irene be put back into power though these attempts diplomatically did not succeed. In order to enforce these demands, Tertius stipulated that the succession of Byzantine Emperors should go first through the children of Irene Palaiologos, who was older than Manuel II. In support, Wallachia would lend additional troops, and left some within the Byzantine nobility with support for Irene. Failing to secure an alliance with Hungary, emperor Manuel II would rally support and prepare fortifications. Upon the turn of the year, the Dobrujan army would invade the empire, engaging with Manuel II at Burgas where the armies of both Dobruja and Wallachia would be fully repulsed. Though not allying with the empire, the Kingdom of Hungary would begin an invasion of Wallachia shortly after their concurrent invasion, looting the city of Târgoviște before unsuccessfully taking the city and being repulsed by the returning armies. After the successful defense, Manuel II would order an invasion to capture the city of Varna. Though initially just a conflict over a dynastic dispute, the war had shifted in the mind of Manuel II into more of a hegemonic struggle to assert Roman hegemony on the Black Sea coast. After Varna would fall to the Byzantines, being annexed that same year, Manuel II would depart by sea to Constantinople after news of the arrival of Ethiopian delegates. Upon departing Varna however, Manuel II would then be assassinated by the Esovestiaritai, their support for Herodotus and Irene being confirmed. Prior to their arrival in Constantinople however, Irene would die due to sickness, and upon his release in 1410, Herodotus was sole emperor at 15.

Constantinople in 1410.

In the first year of Herodotus' reign, he coronated John VIII as his co-Emperor in an attempt to prevent civil war between the Palaiologoi. With Varna, the Dobrujan capital, captured and Roman armies pushing farther north, Herodotus offers peace to Tertius, who was now imprisoned in Varna. Tertius would accept the peace, and in the process, stepped down from his post as Despote and retired to a small estate in the south of the country. Tertius' son, Quartus, would be forced to swear fealty to both John VIII and Herodotus, with Dobruja becoming a vassal of the Roman Empire. The cities of Odessos and Aegyssus would later be ceded to the empire. After the decimating defeat of Dobruja, a faction of noblility in the Palaiologoi formed in opposition to Herodotus, primarily by his cousin and son of emperor John VIII, Theodore. Fearing that Herodotus is acting tyrannical, as well as the forced subjugation of Dobruja, John VIII would become increasingly hostile toward each other due to feeling insulted by close relatives of the other. Approached by a group of Greek aristocrats, Herodotus would spiral into a conspiracy against John VIII and Theodore. After making contact with the Medici family in Italy, notably with men of an unscrupulous and undiscerning nature, Theodore would be assassinated and an attempt made on John VIII's life following a celebration in their honor in Constantinople, which would ultimately fail. Uncovering the plot against his life, John VIII would flee to Anatolia, where he would hire thousands of Turkish mercenaries in an attempt to up-end Herodotus reign after the betrayal, beginning another civil war.

During the civil war, emperor Herodotus would establish alliances abroad with the Kingdom of Poland-Lithuania for support, ultimately starting a two-century alliance between the kingdoms. After deposing John VIII following the 1413 Battle of Nicomedia, as well as imprisoning numerous members in the Palaiologoi, Herodotus ruled as sole emperor officially, and would rule solely for the remainder of his 41-year reign. Moving to assert personal control over the politics of the empire, Herodotus would establish numerous advisory and petitionary assemblies, of which each assembly must elect from within its body of members a representative who served in the the Body of Colleges, abolishing the ancient Roman senate for good. These revolutionary governing practices at the time stemmed from increasing demands for reform from the growing middle class and the now increasingly educated lower classes. Seeking balance through Aristotle's political ideas, the Body of Colleges proposed numerous change in its first few months of existence as it sought to correct some of the issues that predated it. During this time, reforms centered around the repurposing of underutilized land in the interior of Anatolia, the further liberalization of trade practices within the empire, and the sponsorship of various industries. Though most of the reforms were clearly impossible or detrimental to the monarchy, the repopulation of Anatolia caught Herodotus' attention, reminding him of the Greek peoples that had existed in Anatolia centuries prior. As a result, the Muslim nobility would largely be forced out to make way for small estates dedicated to the production of export crops or various goods, leading to a mass-migration of Muslim Turks eastward towards Cilicia and Mesopotamia.

Throughout the 1410s, emperor Herodotus sought to undermine the remaining Beyliks in Anatolia, namely the Karamanids and the Hamadids. In 1444, Byzantine spies and assassins posing as envoys would arrive in the courts of the Hamadids and Karamanids, and at the behest of the emperor, would establish permanent trade outposts and improve the relationship between the empire and the Turks, citing Herodotus' "disposition toward peaceful trade and prosperity." During their time spent in foreign lands, they would be instructed to rile up support for upstart minor lords, peasant or religious rebellions, or any other form of dissent that might topple one of the leading dynasties. Of particular deviancy, maps showing lands belonging to the Emirate of Tekke under the rule of the Hamadids and Karamanids are circulated within both the Hamadid and Karamanid Beyliks. With trade access in Anatolia, merchants from the empire would dominate growing export economies in the various Turkish Beyliks. In particular, the Beylik of Tekke would come to serve as a major area of export from the interior and a large community of merchants from the empire began to own land in the city of Attaleia. Meanwhile, subversive activities would continue in the realms of the Hamadids and Karamanids. Specifically, spies would attempt to insight the population against Tekke over trade disputes and distribute more of the false maps showing lands within Tekke owned by the Hamadids and Karamanids. Others sought to aid rebellious or seditious groups in opposition to their respective Beys. The other minor Beyliks would become the target of trade expansion during this time, with Herodotus hoping to bring the Turks under the economic domination of the empire while also disrupting the influence of the two most powerful states in opposition.

Conflict would arise in 1416 upon the revelation that emperor Herodotus had sent letters to the Bey of Tekke, ensuring their protection against foreign invasion, would be intercepted by the Karamanid Amir Mehmet II, who used it as justification for subjugating the emirate. In support, Herodotus would send an army of 10,000 to defend the capital, though after suffering high casualties, would withdraw support. For two years, the whole of central Anatolia erupted into a brief conflict, where the Karamanids and their vassals subjugated the dissenters and effectively unified the region. Following the emirate's subjugation, Mehmet II would invade the Byzantine empire, but would suffer high-casualty defeats in their offensive towards Nicomedia. Not wanting to disrupt trade in the region, Herodotus and Mehmet II would negotiate a trade network between the two states to maintain trade. Though many aristocrats urged the emperor towards total, the emperor would instead focus on expanding the trade routes in the Black Sea, and in 1418, Herodotus would go on an Imperial Tour of the empire, stopping in nearly every major city in Thrace and Anatolia. He would survey the work done by his predecessors to restore the vibrancy of the economy and maximize the efficiency of the administration.

The original sketch design of the interior to the Great Library of Constantinople (c. 1420).

Witnessing the Anagennisi appear to be thriving in the Latin lands, Herodotus determined to construct a grand library to cement Constantinople as a center of learning and the arts. He ordered several city blocks cleared to solicit various architects and designers to plan a massive complex in the classical style. Marble columns are preemptively prepared for what is expected to be one of the largest buildings ever constructed. By the end of the year, preliminary designs showed a massive three story cathedral to knowledge with six halls surrounding a central dome. Construction would begin in 1422, lasting fifty years. With complex financial and inventive activity on the rise, the news from Florence of a "Patent Office" induces a petition for the emperor to establish such a service. Herodotus would later agree, and a new office for the distribution of patents for new technology for a length of up to five years is established. With generous funding, more war galleys are ordered, kick-starting a naval arms race with Venice. This would later be confirmed with the formation of a defensive alliance being established in between the empire and Florence in an effort of securing their collective trade.

Angered by the loss of preferential treatment in the east Mediterranean trade, the Republic of Venice declared war against the Byzantine Empire in 1423. Besiege Rhodes with a total of 10,000 troops and 150 ships, they muster an invasion of Gallipoli with 15,000 troops and 250 ships. They would call upon their allies in support, with King Marcus of the Latin Empire launching an invasion of Thrace. The Doge would make an appeal to the episcopal See of the Catholic Church, stating "...the time is now to eliminate the Orthodox heresy from Europe once and for all". The attack by Venice is met at sea before it can land as word of the vast fleet assembling reaches Constantinople through merchants operating out of Ancona. Numbering more than 300 large ships including fifty war-galleys and over 250 merchant ships. In Rhodes, as many islanders that could be armed were raised as levies, and the harvest either burnt or brought into the fortified citadel. In total, 4,000 men defended the island, employing several cannons and an assortment of wall-guns to fend off the enemy ships and keep them at bay. Work on the Great Library of Constantinople is halted dramatically as the Themes are called up. Under the lead of field marshal Alexander Tagaris, 18,000 men are raised in Constantinople and would make the march to Gallipoli to repel any invaders who had landed. During this time, the empire would take to compensating mercenaries from nations such as Hungary and Serbia to bolster the forces, primarily funded by the empire's maritime taxation policies, which reportedly doubled their reserves.

To aid the Venetians, Marshal John II Crispo of Latin Romania would lead 37,000 troops into Adrianople, besieging the city for weeks before engaging militarily with the empire. The empire would see early success in their defensive campaign, defending Kavala and Gallipoli respectively in 1423 as well as lifting the siege of Rhodes. However, the Venetians were success in blockading the island, leading to a famine of the city's population which deteriorated relations between the peasants and Byzantine armies. In April, Strategos Tagaris would march north to reinforce the defenders in Thrace, stopping to dispatch 10,000 men to Anatolia to begin an invasion of the County of Caria. Facing only limited regional resistance, the army of 11,000 would advance rapidly into the region, laying siege to Smyrna and then Philadelphia. New siege weapons developed during Herodotus' early reign, as well as long range Ankistróplos, would be deployed to ensure that such a siege went smoothly. Suffering extensive losses, the Latins would accept a peace deal in return for the 50,000 Silver Marks looted from Constantinople during the Fourth Crusade centuries prior. Despite this peace, the Byzantine empire would continue engagements with the Venetians in an attempt to usurp their authority in the Black Sea, initiating a campaign in Crimea. Outnumbered at sea, Alexander Tagaris offered a potential solution to the impasse with Venice, planning to march an army through Bulgaria, Serbia, and Hungary to Italy, where he will invade Venice's territories in northern Italy, turning Florence against the Venetians, and eventually installing John Jacob of Montferrat as ruler over the majority of the Venetian lands. Envoys sent by land to the Patriarch of Aquileia, John Jacob of Montferrat, and the Florentine Republic ask for support upon the army's arrives, but despite negotiations, the Patriarch of Aquiela flatly denied the Byzantine request of passage, leading to a political crisis where with the presence of 25,000 Byzantine troops at the border of Italy. This confirmed their worst fears of emperor Herodotus' ambitions, later being alienated as the empire's local supporters in Italy, such as Montferrat, are compelled to remain neutral out of fear of a coalition by their neighbors. In response, Pope Martin V would send an army of 9,000 to defend against the potential Byzantine invasion.

Disappointed by the Italian state unity in opposing a force of Orthodox and Catholic soldiers trying to sack Venice, the plans for an invasion were scrapped and the army turned south to Hungarian Croatia. The cities of Zadar, Sebenico, and Splento would be summarily occupied while the campaign in Crimea proved successful with Venetian holdings in Crimea being slowly occupied in a grueling siege campaign. In 1527, emperor Herodotus would fall ill in camp outside Dalmatia, weary of war and eager to return to his library. He would request a meeting with the Venetian Doge to end the war. Offering an extended peace, on the condition that the Venetian territories around Taurica be ceded to Rome. Surprisingly, negotiations between the Doge and Emperor went well, with the two rulers taking several hours to discuss not only the war, but also what it means to rule and the nature of power and the appearance of power. Later historians would note that a famous Herodotian Phrase was coined in this meeting, "after all what is life? but an entrance, a brief performance, then an exit." Having shared an evening meal and reached agreeable terms regarding the return of prisoners and the cession of territories in the Black Sea. the two leaders would part ways, never again to meet. With that, Herdotus and his army march back to Constantinople where the levies are dismissed and the Themes released. With the return of peace, work resumed on the Great Library. Upon the integration of Venice's former Taurican holdings into the empire, the Byzantines had successfully established a monopoly on Black Sea trade, with goods from Georgia, Poland, Wallachia, and beyond flowing from the sea through Constantinople. During this time, imports of raw wool combined with local silk, and linen production drove a growing textile industry in the capital, with the steel industry becoming increasingly adaptable since the advent of recreational jousting. The advanced educational systems in place in the empire allowed it to be a center of learning, manufacturing, and semi-automation by 1429.

The early 1430s during the reign of emperor Herodotus consisted of extensive military reforms following the Second Byzantine-Venetian War as well as funding rebellions in the Latin empire. Though they are unable to form any successful schisms, tensions between Roman and Orthodox Christians would become higher than ever, with riots in Thessaloniki disrupting trade and leaving hundreds dead, with clear lines being drawn between the Orthodox and the Latin quarters of the city. In 1431, Crown Prince John would be married to Princess Olga of Novgorod in a joyous ceremony in the Hagia Sophia, solidifying positive relations with the Novgorod Republic. Optical studies from Florence made their way east that year where they would be elaborated on greatly, with some mathematicians suspecting that it may be possible to distort light in such a way as to aid them in verifying the magnum opus of Aristarchus of Samos On the Sizes and Distances. This was primarily done to disprove once-and-for-all the Heliocentric model that the ancient Greek mathematician proposed, with this advancement paving the way for future astronomical studies and a new wave of learning. With tariffs lowered due to the kin-relationship shared with John Jacob and his family, Byzantine trade goods would flood the north Italian and Southern French markets at lower cost than through the neighboring port of Genoa, leading to further market domination by the Byzantines.

In 1434, the Latin empire would experience an organized peasant revolt in Athens, leading the Byzantines to supply the rebels with more advanced arms while agents in the region approached Greek community leaders, notably the clergy and rhetoricians, to join the organized revolt. In 1435, Agathangelos of Mystras and his followers would be contacted and offered Byzantine support of the Legion of Constantine at a steeply discounted price, though this message would be intercepted by the Latins, showcasing the Byzantine plot. Despite continued attempts at interception, Agathangelos and his army would be sent arms and advisers to improve their strength. Despite this, the rebels would be decisively crushed, with the advisors and spies either going into hiding or returning to Constantinople. Adjacent to the Orthodox revolts, the protests by Latin merchants in the empire would be opposed with moderate force, the most severe cases being met with imprisonment or death. Concurrently, the Karamanid Sultanate had integrated obsolete gunpowder technology from the Georgian Empire, using this tactical advantage to overrun and conquer neighboring states in Anatolia. Fearing an invasion, emperor Herodotus mobilized the Themes to form an army of 20,000 men with an additional 3,000 dispersed among smaller scouting parties around the army. With Herodotus at the head and general Iakovos Tagaris beside him, the army would besiege the city of Ankara.

The sack of Gazi (1441)

Having beaten back the Karamanids by the following year, Herodotus and Tagaris pursued their enemy with caution, using old tactics developed by the earlier dynasties of the Roman Empire against the Saracens and Turks. Once again defeating the Karamanids at Lake Tuz, the Byzantines would continue to engage with the Karamanids in Aksaray (1439) and Gazi (1441), which following the latter battle, would leave the Turks strained under the loss of primary trade routes. In a desperate move, emperor Herodotus would contact a spy among the Karaminds, offering them a title, lands, and pension for herself and her family if successful in assassinating Sultan Ibrahim II. Though failing and later being executed, the emperor is said to have still given her family lands in Greece. To this day, nobody has discovered the identity of the spy.

In 1442, the Byzantine army would engage with the Karamanids north of Karadona as they attempted to cross a line of hills to reach Caballa. With their backs to the rough hilly terrain, the Byzantine army set in with a rapid advance, encircling their forces as they struggled to bring their baggage train through the rugged landscape. At the sound of a horn from the cavalry on the bluffs, all units advanced in unison, posing three routes of attack for the undisciplined Karamanid troops which were trapped in a mob in the valley. Following this, the Karamanid army would be slaughtered and the Byzantines celebrating the victory immeasurably, despite Herodotus personally not being satisfied. The remaining Karamanid forces would fall back in a disorderly fashion to the capital at Caballa. Unable to pursue quickly enough to catch the defenders before the walls closed, the empire is forced to accept a siege. The army, numbering 18,000 with the arrival of the Anconan mercenaries from the south, would dig in around Caballa, building light fortifications including earthen ramparts and wooden walls. The light cannons brought with the army are put to use while more substantial siege guns are brought up and placed into the earthworks. With 15,000 defenders trapped in the city, food and water would slowly run short. In an attempt to lift the siege, emperor Herodotus would allow the carcasses' of dead animals would be allowed to fester before being lobed into the city with trebuchets, an action later condemned by future emperors. Lasting more than a year, the siege of Caballa would finally be lifted in the spring of 1445 after disease would run rampant in the city and defenses become limited. Following the siege, remaining Christian soldiers are offered fealty or death, while Muslim soldiers would be completely disarmed and their titles and lands stripped. As a result, the Despotate of Cappadocia would be established with Tagaris as the Despot, legislated by a Curia comprised solely of Orthodox clergy. In the western central regions, the Despotate of Lycaonia is established under the rule of emperor Herodotus' son, John. The southern coast would be annexed, though during this period, the trade ports would be ravaged by Turkish and African pirates in the Mediterranean. The disintegration of the Karamanid sultanate would lead most of the Anatolian beyliks to accept vassalage under the Byzantines in exchange for retaining certain privileges', done primarily out of fear of an invasion.

Emperor Herodotus I's and Despot Iakovos Tagaris' armies at the Battle outside Kaisáreia (1448)

Following the devastating war in Anatolia, emperor Herodotus I would order the reconstruction of destroyed cities and villages, leading to local Orthodox populations in remote areas and within cities to form the core of the newly-established administrative networks. Christian peasants would be recruited with the promise of land and prestige into the formation of a professional army in competition with the greater rival of the West, though during peace time acted as a police force to put down minor unrest and collect taxes. In 1447, with Muslim and even some of the Christian leaders of the Despotate of Cappadocia's Curia up in arms against sending tribute to Constantinople, as well as local nobles in the Despotate of Lycaonia refusing to send wealth west, the emperor would lead a march across the whole of Anatolia, slaughtering various noble leaders undermining the rule of the emperor, once again engulfing the empire into a civil war. On Christmas day, Prince John would be assassinated by Ioannes Tagaris, a nephew of Iakovos Tagaris, after discovering his wife and the prince were having an affair. This would lead to Herodotus I's army engaging with Iakovos Tagaris' army outside the city of Kaisáreia, resulting in the death of Tagaris and Herodotus appointing his second-eldest son, Gregorios, as heir-apparent and King of Cappadocia. Only weeks later, Herodotus I would die from pneumonia, passing away at age 52 on 18 April 1448, and despite his attempts at furthering divide within the Palaiologoi, a political crisis would follow his reign.

Successors to Herodotus I

In the immediate aftermath of emperor Herodotus I's death, his son Gregorios I would be anointed as emperor in Kaisáreia, but in Constantinople, his younger brother Theodore would proclaim himself emperor Theodore III at the provision of the Body of Colleges, leading to the empire splitting between respective territories in Asia Minor and Europe as Theodore would consolidate his rule with the hiring of Catholic mercenaries from neighboring Balkan kingdoms. Due to most of Herodotus I's army being positioned in Anatolia upon his death, Gregorios I would lead the armies in an invasion to usurp Theodore's rule in Europe. On 12 August, Gregorios I would cross Hellespont, laying siege to Gallilopi and capturing the city of Peristasi by the end of the year. In February 1449, angered by the failed defenses, Theodore III would personally lead an army to capture the city of Bysanthe, which had recently come under occupation of Gregorios I' army. In a battle outside the city's walls, Gregorios I and his army would decisively crush Theodore III's army, utilizing the gunpowder technology recovered in Asia Minor. With the death of Theodore III, Gregorios I would be accepted in Constantinople, being formally coronated as emperor on 11 March.

In 1450, after having served with Muslim Turks in the short civil war, in 1450 emperor Gregorious would hold a meeting with the Patriarch Gregory Mammas of Constantinople. He would reoportedly ask the Patriarch to be "gentle and forgiving" in his treatment of the Muslim Turks "who have been so corrupted by agents of Satan". The Emperor would affirm that he, too, "[sought] to solidify Christendom's return to Asia Minor", and invited the Patriarch to expand the churches peaceful proselytization and service efforts. He would remind the Patriarch that while the regions were under Christian control, a major uprising would serve only to result in the deaths and impoverishment of the faithful. This did not go well with the Patriarch, who would for the rest of Gregorios I's reign, refer to him in distate for his tolerance of Islam. Despite this, Gregorios I spent his early years in diplomacy, marrying his son John IX to Helena of Serbia as well as forging a defensive alliance with the Kingdom of Albania. During this era in the empire, the competition in the merchant economy grew to a fevered pitch, with loans and insurance growing ubiquitous as merchants purchased new ships and equipment on borrowed capital. As a result, the demand for rowers dropped dramatically as many switch to the swift, cheap, and cargo-efficient Caraveles Galleas, preferring the faster, more maneuverable ships to the ability to sail into the wind, leading a period of high unemployment within the empire. In response, Gregorios I would use funds from the treasury to employ the men into road-building.

Despite conflicting sentiments in the church, emperor Gregorios I was able to focus on the economy and maximizing government revenue at a minimum pain for the tax-payers. A census of the empire, its vassals, and its other holdings would be conducted 1451, the first one completed in centuries. With the census data in, taxation and governance grew more effecient as a result. The Despotates in Asia Minor, as well as the other vassals in Taurica and Dobruja, provided support for the imperial counters and are given their own results for internal use. Religious groups in particular would be specifically counted in such a way as to determine the religious nature of the empire. By this point, the city of Constantinople had grown well outside the city's original limit, leading to the problem of crowding and slums in the city. To deal with this, the Body of Colleges would motion the emperor to transport thousands of civilians to the relatively underpopulated Taurica Peninsula and into the interior of Asia Minor, which he would accept. These groups would be settled in neighborhoods with a knowledgeable farmer and rented unused Imperial lands gained in the conquests of these regions, with many of the transported civilians providing military service to the empire. Having heard of a Gutenburgian Press installed in Rome, Gregorios I would send an envoy to treat with this Gutenburg and procure one of the presses, and was reportedly offered to meet the emperor and tour the city, but denied the offer as the Papal States were his benefactors.

An illuminated manuscript showing Mark the Evangelist, made using the printing press (c. 1460)

In 1452, crop yields in the empire would be reported in limited quantities throughout the empire and beyond, with grain becoming severely scarce. In Constantinople, the city's gardens bear little fruit and the moon, the symbol of Constantinople, rose in a dark eclipse, spreading fear of a bad omen. Later that year, a thunderstorm would set a great fire in the city with the appearance of "a large fire looming" over Hagia Sophia and the city walls inspiring terror in fleeing citizens, though after the Hagia Sophia was not damaged, later research would conclude that the supposed fire was actually an optical illusion caused by the reflection of intensely red twilight glow by clouds of volcanic ash high in the atmosphere. The strange optical events inspire many to study optics, which grew in prominence as a field of study within the Pandidakterion not previously seen before, and lead to a number of lens-makers to open in the city. The lens making industry, over the decades since it's rise, would rise exponentially as researchers, scholars, and bureaucrats demanded eye-wear and optical tools. In addition to the city's gem-cutting industry and re-established trade with the west, Constantinople and its surrounding would become a center of intermediate production. A member of the Pandidakterion, Apollonas Vallotis, awakened by the strange fog and apparitions of fire, would write a manuscript detailing a world in which the imperial city fell under siege by the Turks, bringing the "apocalypse". Due to the written material, the manuscript proved unpopular and Vallotis was removed from the Pandidakterion for his controversial views. Despite these omens, philosopher Gemistus Plethon would meet with emperor Gregorios I, with the two discussing the concept of a reformed, "Hellenic" empire. Despite being intrigued, Gregorios I would insist that maintaining the titles of Rome offered more legitimacy and prestige, and would later pass bureaucratic reforms based on Plethon's work The Universal Empire, among which included the codification of Jews into Byzantine society, but despite the emperor's aims, in practice most Jews lived cloistered in Jewish Quarters or Jewish Townships, in de facto compliance with the wishes of the Patriarch. In 1454, after long delay, the printing press would be imported from the Papal State and installed by Gutenberg himself, though would initially be used for strictly government usage.

The Battle of Sinop (1457) would see the end to Turkish nominal rule in the Anatolia.

The flight of the Great Comet of 1456 spurs on attempts to legitimize the Platonic understanding of the heavens. Bartholomaios Platinos, a prominent humanist and astronomer, as well as others of the Pandidakterion, note the passage of the comet, interpreting it as a good omen. The flight would lead to astronomy and optics become central to intellectual life within the upper-crust of Roman society. Emperor Gregorios I would later endorse this study, sponsoring the construction of dedicated observatories, the largest being with the Blachernae palace complex. Wishing to curry favors from the church and the the empire seeing its first surplus in years, Gregorios I would donate a significant amount to repairing churches throughout the empire, particularly in Lycaonia and other recently conquered territories. Other funds are directed to the construction and improvement of administrative centers throughout the countryside. Deciding the time to expand further into east was upon him, Gregorios I would raise an army of 15,000 to march on Sinop and Kastamone, subjugating the Turkish nobility and firmly driving the Turks from power in Asia minor for the first time since their invasion nearly three centuries prior.

In 1458, separate to the Byzantine empire, a large-scale revolt would take place across the Latin Empire, as a coalition of Orthodox nobles led by Thomas Zachariah launched a coup d'état to take control over the southern Peloponnese near Morea. The Tsardom of Serbia, taking advantage of the advantage of the turmoil, would launch an invasion from the north with support from Albania, seizing parts of Grecian Macedonia. As a result of the war against the last of the Turkish Beyliks, a localized mutiny of Turkish military takes place in the Despotate of Cappadocia, attempting to seize control over local cities and supply lines important for that campaign. More local Muslim unrest also takes place in the more southern parts of the nation. However, King John II of Cyprus offers to help the Byzantines suppress the Muslims on the coast, if he approved the marriage of a Palaiologoi to his son, James. Faced with a severe shortage of manpower due to losses last year, emperor Gregorious would accept King John II of Cyprus' offer, being asked to secure the southern coast of Asia Minor in exchange for the young Lady Sophia Palaiologoi, a cousin once-removed of the emperor, to marry his son. After securing Anatolia, rather than disband the army, Gregorios I would declare war against the Latin Empire in support of the Orthodox rebels. The Imperial Fleet, made up of nearly 5,000 rowers, pressed into service as marines, the remaining men of the Theme System, numbering 3,000 men, and 5,000 men from Lycaonia, Dobruja, Trebizond, and Theodoro would be raised to secure Lower Macedonia, Thessaly, Attica, and Epirus for the Empire. In June, 7,000 men of the Imperial Army and vassals marched to secure Thessaloniki, a critical city of the Latin the empire. The city would later fall into siege for more than a year, and with the declaration of support for the Latin Empire by the Republic of Venice, the primary Roman Fleet would pull back from the established blockade and reorganize near Gallipoli for engagement. To break the siege, 7,000 soldiers invade Caria, defeating the armies of the local lords and liberating the Peloponnese by 1460.

As the situation in the Latin Empire continued to spiral, the deep religious schisms in the Peloponnese would be galvanized by this precipitous downfall of Romania and lead to the Byzantines seizing control of the entire peninsula. Without aid from the Papal States, the Latins would be forced into full retreat. Having taken the County of Caria, the army there would march to Thessaly where they would join a portion of the army at Thessaloniki for a final push on to Corinth. This army of 10,000 soldiers would march to defeat the last standing Latin Army in the field near Larissa, using cannons and arquebus' to defeat the larger Crusader army before besieging the capital itself. During this time, two Orthodox states in Greece would be established by Gregorios I as a result of the Latin collapse, being the Despotates of Epirus and Achaea. The economic weight of the wars, the revolts, and the Venetian presence in the Aegean, would drag the empire an into economic slump as the treasury would reach a substantial deficit, only partially being saved due to trade in the Black Sea. In 1461, after coming down with a fever, Gregorios I would appoint his son, John, as co-Emperor John IX, to help in maintaining the empire. After subduing Thessaly, Gregorios I's dreams to further subjugate Greece would end with his death in early 1462, with emperor John IX being anointed as sole emperor.

With it becoming increasingly clear that sustaining such wide-spread military efforts is draining imperial wealth and power in an unprecedented way, and faced with total bankruptcy, emperor John IX would alleviate the empire's economic burdens by increasing taxes on both domestic and foreign merchants dramatically, leading to his authority being resented and protests being carried out around the major trade ports of the empire. These protests would often be suppressed brutally by the emperor, and in following year of the taxation policy being passed, open rebellion would lead the empire into a crisis that lead to mutinies among the greater army and the refusal of cities and provinces to regulate taxes into the capital. In 1463, the Byzantine general Michael Akhlagoi would coup emperor John IX, and after overwhelming the emperor's guards, slaughtering them and killing John IX though his sons would escape. Akhlagoi would coronate himself as emperor Michael X on 3 September, legitimizing his rule in Constantinople after purging the Body of Colleges and at one point nearly dismantled the Great Library of Construction, only to be persuaded by a local priest. This series of events would culminate in the second son of John IX, Andronikos, coronating himself as emperor Andronikos V Palaiologos in the city of Thessaly, condemning the conflict in the empire to last.

Light cannons would play a crucial part in the Byzantine civil war (1463–1469), being assimilated entirely into the Byzantine army after the conflict by emperor Andronikos V.

With established support from the empire's vassals and tributaries, Andronikos V would lead his army of Greeks, Turks, Bulgars, and Swiss, into battle against Michael X in the cities of Thessaly (1464), Adrianople (1465), and Tzirallum (1467), decisively crushing his army of loyalists with lighter cannons and more advanced gunpowder technology. With high casualties on both sides, its cited that Andronikos V would often contemplate the purpose of combat, and its said in tradition to have almost surrendered after the death of his own son, Constantine, in the Battle of Metrae (1468). Nonetheless he persevered, and by the spring of 1469, had successfully reduced the authority of Michael X to the gates of Constantinople. With his military failures, Michael X would be killed by his own supporters, whom would seize power and attempt to defeat Andronikos V's army, but failed and were slaughtered, ending the civil war. The Byzantine civil war of 1463–1469 is considered the most deadliest civil war in the Byzantine empire's history at the time, only later being surpassed during the Greek Revolution more than three centuries later.

Upon restoring the imperial administration, and now tasked with ruling Caria and Lower Macedonia, emperor Andronikos V is forced to reform significantly in the face of budget cuts and greater demands. though not a proficient economist, Andronikos V would be remembered as an 'administrative organizer', taking an active role in the Body of Colleges to pass reforms and restructure the Byzantine army. These administrative reforms brought temporary stability in the newly conquered regions, with land granted to soldiers in Caria, Lycaonia, and Cappadocia further ensuring the Empire's grip on Asia Minor. In 1470, the Great Library of Constantinople would complete its construction, having lasted fifty years and undergone numerous delays. It would stand undamaged for nearly a century after, becoming a pivotal aspect of the renaissance in the Byzantine empire and the Balkans at large, and is often seen as the apex of the Palaiologoi renaissance (13th–15th century). Still, the empire would remain financially burdened for nearly a decade following the civil war, continuing to be exacerbated due to Hafsid piracy.

In July 1470, the piracy found in the Aegean had caused a serious issue for Imperial merchants and thus a naval expedition would be sent to subdue them. Consisting of 30 war galleys, 35 caravel galleass equipped for war, and an assortment of merchant vessels numbering 100, the fleet of ships would conduct anti-piracy patrols and attempt to find the locate strongholds of the pirates and their secret bases. The Battle of Rhodes (1471) and the Bosporus (1472) would temporary slow down piracy, but by 1473, numerous coastal ports in the Aegean had fallen under nominal Hafsid control, with many of the pirates looting valuables as well as setting ablaze numerous maritime offices and merchant fleets. In response, Andronikos V would personally accompany of expedition of 180 ships in the Hafsid outpost in the Cyclades. Following the decisive Battle of Athens that same year, the pirates would retreat to the Barbary coast, never to return to the Aegean though attacks along the trade routes and Balkans would be continue to be recorded. During the same time, advancements and developments in farming techniques would lead to an unemployment crisis as farmers found that they no longer need to hire as many laborers during planting season. This social and economic development leads to rapid displacement of small farmers who often form small communities in less developed areas, subsisting on marginal lands that had been abandoned during the arrival of the Turks and the Black Death. Unrest and re-urbanization would be among other consequences as some small-scale farmers are forced into the cities where they made demands on local administrators. Many would be employed by local governments in construction in Asia Minor, or would be relocated in new settlements throughout the empire.

Bureaucracy

Main article: List of Byzantine emperors

The Emperor and his Courtesans.

As the absolute monarch of the empire, the emperor exerted absolute authority from the capital of Constantinople. For more than a century since the empire's restoration following the Fourth Crusade, the Byzantine Senate did not exist in form comparable to the initial senate founded in the 4th century, given that much of its remaining powers as a body were removed under legal reforms. Following the ascension of John VII and in an effort to avoid civil war, Andronikos IV would divide the absolute authority of emperor, making the immediate heir to the ruling emperor to become the new co-emperor upon reaching age of maturity. It was during the reign of joint-rule of the empire under John V and Andronikos IV that numerous offices previously abolished prior in the empire's past would be re-organized and reformed, including various administrative offices such as the Praetorian prefecture. Thus, the Emperor presided over the senate and retained the right to veto, but had subsequently granted the Praetors the right to vote in setting governing precedent.

Following the collapse of the Roman empire, its laws and practices would continue under the Byzantine empire with increased Christian influence. For centuries, law had been based upon the Codex Theodosianus by emperor Theodosius II, written in the 5th century. This would later undergo various revisions over the following millennia before being repealed in favor of emperor Leo VI's Basilika in the late 9th century. Unlike the Codex Theodosianus which had been primarily formed as a continuation of Roman Law, the Basilika would embrace Greek traditions and become the code followed throughout the empire's tenure.

After the fall of Constantinople in 1261, the empire would fall under the rule of the Palaiologos dynasty, a Byzantine Greek noble family. History surrounding the dynasty's origins are unclear, though oral tradition depicts the family of having originated in Italy. Other origins feature the Palaiologoi as descendants of ancient Romans whom had travelled alongside Constantine the Great to Constantinople upon it's creation and designation as the Roman Empire's new capital in 330. In contrast, modern developments dictate the likely origin of the Palaiologoi to be Anatolian. This is where the dynasty's earliest known member, Byzantine general Nikephoros Palaiologos, originated as well as governed militarily during the reign of emperor Michael VII Doukas. The imperial line began with Michael VII, who was coronated as Emperor and Autocrat of the Romans on 5 August 1261. Despite this, the Palaiologan dynasty were not well-liked by their subjects during Michael VII's reign, primarily due to his aspirations to reunite the Eastern Orthodox Church with the Catholic Church of Rome, and upon death was condemned as a traitor and a heretic by people in the empire. Many future emperors would continue attempts at reuniting the churches, though mostly to little success and often lead to rebellions within the Byzantine realm.