Catholic Church (Merveilles des Morte)
 Catholic Church | |
|---|---|
| Ecclesia Catholica | |
 | |
| Classification | Catholic |
| Scripture | Bible |
| Theology | Catholic theology |
| Polity | Episcopal |
| Structure | Communion |
| Pope | Unknown |
| Administration | Roman Curia |
| Particular churches sui iuris | Latin Church, and 23 Eastern Catholic Churches |
| Dioceses | |
| Parishes | 221,700 |
| Region | Worldwide |
| Language | Ecclesiastical Latin and native languages |
| Liturgy | Western and Eastern |
| Headquarters | Rome |
| Founder |
Jesus, according to sacred tradition |
| Origin |
1st century Holy Land, Roman Empire |
| Clergy | |
| Hospitals | 5,500 |
| Primary schools | 95,200 |
| Secondary schools | 43,800 |
The Catholic Church, also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the largest Christian church and the largest religious denomination, with over one billion adherents worldwide. Its name comes from the Latin term "Catholic" meaning "Universal". The Catholic Church believes that governance and interpretation of Christianity was entrusted to the Apostles, led by the "chief" Apostle Simon Peter (c. 5 – 67/68 AD). This same authority was passed to the successors of the Apostles down the centuries, known as the Early Church Fathers, and the body of their writings and traditions are collectively known as Catholic Dogma.
Catholicism believes that the Bishop of Rome is the direct successor of Simon Peter, and consequently the Church in Rome is the central, hierarchal authority over all Christianity. Catholicism strongly adheres to a rigid hierarchal system of governance, in which local Churches are overseen by a Bishop which is assigned to a regional diocese. These Bishops derive their authority from an Archbishop that represents an archdiocese. The highest authority is the Bishop of Rome, also known as the Pope, whose decisions are considered to be infallible as inherited from the Apostle Peter.
Hierarchy
The Catholic Church follows an episcopal polity, led by bishops who have been given formal jurisdictions of governance within the church and have received the sacrament of Holy Orders. Within the clergy there are three levels: the episcopate, which is composed of bishops who hold jurisdiction over a geographic area called an eparchy or diocese; the presbyterate, which is composed of proests ordained by bishops and who work in local dioceses or religious orders; and the diaconate, which is composed of deacons who assist bishops and priests in a variety of ministerial roles. The Bishop of Rome is considered the ultimate leader of the Catholic Church, and is commonly called the pope, whose jurisdiction is called the Holy See. In parallel to the diocesan structure within the church are a variety of religious institutes that function autonomously, being usually only subjected to the authority of the pope directly, although sometimes subject to the authority of local bishops.
As a result of Catholicism's centralization, the Church maintains a single set of theological dogma and a single system of Church liturgy. However, over the centuries different rites of Catholic liturgy have also been officially recognized, known as a sui juris Church or Patriarchate. Some of these rites were developed in the Late Middle Ages as an attempt of compromise against the rising Protestant movement in Western Europe. Patriarchates that exist on other continents officially date back to succession of the original Apostles, namely the Latin Patriarchs of Jerusalem (from St. James the Just) and Constantinople (from St. Andrew). Effectively, however, these titles were actually created as a result of the Crusades that were conducted from 1096-1333. The Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem has existed as a titular see since the Fall of Acre in 1291, and briefly restored from 1305-1333.
Holy See
The Latin Patriarch of Constantinople was briefly made a titular see during the early Palaiologos dynasty in 1261, and was restored with the resurgence of the Latin Empire in 1308. In 1347, pressure from the growing power of the Latin Emperor secured the Latin Patriarchate as an elected position independent of Rome, while the Pope retains authority to have the election vetoed. As the Latin Emperor's power eventually eroded in the face of the Palaiologos resurgence, the Patriarchate ended their elective system in 1381. The Latin Patriarchy continued until the collapse of the Latin Empire in the 1450s. In 1461, the Pope negotiated an agreement with Byzantium to have the title dissolved in the near future, in exchange for the Catholic Churches in Greece to remain outside of the Emperor's control. However, this agreement did not come into effect until 1483.
The Pope is the absolute authority over the Catholic Church, who also holds the title of Bishop of Rome and Vicar of Jesus Christ. The Papal Supremacy over the Church is believed to have risen in the last centuries of the Roman Empire, as the authority of the Emperor was rapidly eroding as a result of social collapse and barbarian invasions. The control of the Pope over the Church grew gradually over time, which developed significantly after sovereignty of the Papal States was secured in the 11th century AD. The Pope is an absolute, elected monarch of the Papal States, and shares the religious authority over the Catholic Church with the secular authority over this nation. The body of electors that chooses the next Pope is the College of Cardinals, who are appointed by the Pope from existing Bishops. The Roman Curia is the legislative body over the Papal States under the Pope's authority.
In his capacity as absolute authority over the Church, the Pope can make unilateral decisions over Church doctrine or organization, which he speaks ex cathedra (that is, from the Chair of Saint Peter). These edicts are known as a Papal Bull. Unum Sanctum was a Bull issued in 1304 that gave the Pope final authority over secular disputes, which was used to curb the power of the rapidly-expanding King of Aragon. Quamvis Perfidiam was issued in 1348 to condemn violence against Jewish minorities, echoing earlier Papal edicts on similar grounds. Sacrum Diaconatus Ordinem was issued in 1437 to address the controversy of married men who wanted to become priests. This Bull created a system where married men may be trained as a deacon after a period of four years, and assist the Priest in various rituals, but cannot administrate those rituals themselves. Dum Diversas was issued in 1455 to address the recent expansion of the Portuguese empire, and especially their participation of African slavery. The Bull stated that Portugal may buy and sell pagan slaves, but any Africans who converted to Christianity cannot be enslaved.
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The second authority next to the Pope is the Cardinal-Secretary, a position of both secular and religious power that essentially acts as a viceroy within the College of Cardinals. A lawyer of the Holy See also exists to "defend the rights of the Church". The Papal States is divided into a series of regional councils, which are elected from local merchants, lower nobility, and clerics. The head of each regional council is a Papal Vicar, who is appointed directly by the Pope. During the monthly Consistory, the Papal Vicars report on the status of the Church and common people in their regions, to identify any signs of corruption or heresy. These offices were first established by Pope Gregory XI in the 1320s, who had come to rule over the Papal States as a result of the Ecumenical Council of Trier and the Iohannan War. Gregory initially envisioned this system to check against corruption over the entire Church, but ultimately the regional councils only came into effect in central Italy. The organization wasn't fully established until the Constitutiones Sanctæ Matris Ecclesiæ was adopted in 1357.
The regular rituals and ceremonies conducted in the Papal States, especially the election and consecration of the Pope, is organized by the Pontifical Assistant for Papal Ceremonies, which was established in 1453. The military of the Papal States is funded from various sources within the broader network of the Church finances. Primarily, this military financing is organized by the Archbishop of Ravenna, who was elevated to the office of Chancellor of the Holy Roman Empire in 1448. This office of Chancellor within the Catholic Church is distinctly different from the Imperial Chancellor of Germany appointed by the Holy Roman Emperor, which was traditionally held by the Archbishop of Mainz, prior to the tenure of Henry VIII, Holy Roman Emperor.
Tribunals
Outside of the Pope, a broader bureaucracy exists as a check against any possible signs of corruption or heresy in the Church, collectively known as the "Inquisition". This office is known as the Supreme Sacred Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith. This organization was officially created by Pope Pius II with the Licet ab initio constitution in 1454, in reaction to the rise of Protestant movements in Lothringia and France. However, this was more of an umbrella group to combine multiple different offices that had existed for a long time, some as old as the 13th century. The four branches of the Sacred Congregation are: the Ecclesiastical Tribunal, the Supreme Tribunal of Apostolic Signatura, the Apostolic Tribunal of Roman Rota, and the Supreme Tribunal of the Apostolic Penitentiary.
The Apostolic Penitentiary is responsible for administrating confessions and forgiveness of sins, which also takes the form of collecting and distributing indulgences. Under the authority of the Apostolic Penitentiary is the Army of Mercy. The Army of Mercy is a volunteer organization of physicians, priests, and monks who are tasked to provide relief efforts in regions affected by wars or natural disasters. These functions of the Army of Mercy, and the whole of the Apostolic Penitentiary falls under the doctrine of Divine Mercy in the Catholic Church.
The Ecclesiastical Tribunal exists within the Inquisition as a check against corruption or heresy within the Church itself. All offices in the Catholic Church, even as high as the College of Cardinals, are subject to scrutiny by the Tribunal, with the exception being the Pope himself. The Tribunal was established in 1318, in the midst of a popular movement pushing for eliminating Simony and encouraging clerical poverty. The Iohannan War highlighted the existing secular influence that could corrupt the Church, which was resolved by the Council of Trier in 1312. The subsequent movements by the Impoverished Franciscans (under William of Ockham) and the Basque Church (under St. Federico Goikoetxea) pushed for further reform. Finally, the Papal Bull Pro Ecclesia in 1314 declared Simony to be heretical, which led to the establishment of the Ecclesiastical Tribunal. Clerics caught for Simony are sentenced to life imprisonment.
The College of Cardinals is presided over by the Dean, who also has authority over the public property of the entire Holy See. There are always thirty Cardinals at any one time. After a Pope dies, a conclave is held where the College of Cardinals gather in privacy to elect the next Pope. The winning candidate is whichever Cardinal receives the majority of votes. After the Marcian Schism in the 1410s, a movement of Concilerism was proposed to democratize the College of Cardinals, in the manner originally envisioned by William of Ockham. The newly-elected Pope Martin V reversed this on the College of Cardinals, and accused them of being the true source of heresy that allowed the schism to happen. So it was after that point that the College was effectively placed under the authority of the Ecclesiastical Tribunal.
The Ecclesiastical Tribunal also administrates over the feedback of the Church body back to the Pope, in an organization known as the General Council of the Church. The General Council branches into local councils organized within each Catholic nation, which are elected among the clerics native to that nation. Starting in 1441, the General Council meets once every ten years together with the College of Cardinals and the Pope. This meeting discusses the current state of the Church, focusing on issues of dogma, rooting out corruption and response to heresy. The council was established in 1438 by the Papal Bull Sanctum Consilio, which was in reaction to the Council of Pragmatic Sanctions created by King William I of France. While the Council of Pragmatic Sanctions was initially an organ of the General Council, this relationship was eventually dissolved by the rise of the Gallican Church.
Secular issues
Education
The Catholic Church greatly favors education and development of science. This emphasis on education started with the Scholastic movement in the 13th century, and permeated throughout the Renaissance of the 14th-16th centuries. The University of St. Augustine is a major hub of education in Italy, along with the Sistine Library which is one of the largest collections of books in Europe. Both of these centers of education were created in the 1330s by Pope Sixtus IV, and rose into prominence due to a severe shortage of educated priests following the Black Death. In the subsequent generation, the Catholic Catechism was first developed in the 1380s to further facilitate priestly education, as well as in response to the criticisms of John Wycliffe. The university has been particularly known for studies in early biology and anatomy. In 1456, evolutionary biology was recognized as Catholic dogma.
The most significant organization to facilitate clerical education is the Association of Missions and Preachers. With branches existing in every nation in Europe, this organization works to promote education on Catholic faith and doctrines. As Europe began to colonize the New World and expand into Africa and Asia, the AMP also participated in a variety of international missions to preach Catholic Christianity to the indigenous population. The AMP was originally founded in 1433 as a way to combat against the rise of Protestant movements, particularly the Dutch Hussites. During the Inquisition established by Pope Pius II, the AMP worked closely with the Supreme Sacred Congregation in attempts to stamp out this heresy.
Charity
Another major function of the Catholic Church is donations to the poor. These acts of charity are organized under the Institute of Works of Charity. This organization has branches in most nations in Europe, and supervise the collection of donations for charity and their implementation for uplifting the poor. The IWC acts largely independent from the hierarchy of the Church itself, and sustains a complex bureaucracy as a check against corruption or fraud, but still requires direct permission from the Pope to sign off on financial matters. The structure of the IWC consists of three other organizations for philanthropy: the Fund of the Poor, the Fund of Charity, and the Barns of the Poor. These three groups manage a surplus of donations, which are accessed whenever generosity of the Church is low. The Fund of the Poor is kept in the Bank of Rome, which is backed by the Bank of Milan. The Fund of Charity is kept in the Bank of Avignon, which is backed by the Bank of Florence. The Barns of the Poor manages surplus of non-monetary donations, particularly food.
While the IWC was founded in 1439, this was done by merging existing charity organizations together which had been around for much longer. Pope Gregory XI established the original funds of charity in the 1310s in reaction to the Great Famine of Europe, as well as the ongoing movement for clerical poverty by William of Ockham. In the 15th century, when King William I of France was moving against the beneficiaries of the Church, Pope Eugene IV created the IWC as a compromise proposal.
Balancing the dedication towards charity and clerical poverty over the opulence and political power of the Church was a constant struggle for the Papacy from the 14th-15th centuries, in the years from the Crisis of the 14th Century leading up to the Reformation. Pope John XXI, among his many unpopular moves, pulled back from the selling of indulgences in 1309, causing an immediate shortage of Church revenue. After John was deposed by the Council of Trier, the next Pope Gregory XI re-introduced indulgences in 1316, but under careful regulation. As a result of the ongoing movement by Federico Goikoetxea and William of Ockham, the Pope made a declaration in 1318 that the Church will gradually work towards a state of clerical poverty. This was further enforced by Pope Sixtus IV, who imposed limits on how much money can be spent by the Pope and Cardinals. Still, the usual Papal splendor was never actually removed, and Pope Gregory introduced a new papal crown that was donated by the Huber family of Trier.
However, this movement started to become eroded under the French Papacy of Clement V, in the 1340s. He re-introduced nepotism of Cardinal-nephews, and preferred a luxurious lifestyle which he was accustomed to from the French court. With the ongoing wars in Italy exasperated by the Black Death, the Italian banks suffered economic decay, which in the case of Florence was close to complete bankruptcy. Clement V bailed out these banks, which saved the Italian economy but further strained the Papal finances. Clement responded with the Papal Bull Caritas, which required more donations for the Church and increased selling of indulgences. At the same time, Clement's papacy also solidified the authority of the Ecclesiastical Tribunal to check against acts of Simony. This was most notable by the the deposition of the Swiss Cardinal Nicholas de Besse in 1347. As the Black Death swept through Rome in 1349, it was seen as many as an omen of remaining corruption in the Church that needed to be purged.
With the advent of the Italian Renaissance at the end of the 14th century, the Catholic Church begun to relax their limitations on church spending. The Barbary Crusade that created the Kingdom of Tripolitania opened up new sources of trade through Africa, and the architecture pioneered by Filippo Bruneschelli offered a new look for the city of Rome. However, these actions became exactly the center of criticism by the Hussite movement in the 1400s, who once again sought transparency and poverty in the Church. While Pope Benedict XI did well to reconcile with the moderate Hussites and created the Callixite Patriarchate, he proved to be unpopular by various political opponents, and ultimately died under dubious circumstances.
While Pope Pius II spent most of his papacy violently suppressing the Hussites and sponsoring the Inquisition, he also became determined to make the Papacy an outwardly aesthetic life. He banned the use of Papal spending on banquets and parties, among other "frivolous" activities. By 1453, Pope Pius wrote that he intended to make the Holy See a veritable monastery. The College of Cardinals greatly objected to these actions, but Pius was able to keep them at bay with an alliance of several powerful Church leaders. This policy, of course, could not have lasted, and by the time of Pope Leo XI nepotism of Cardinal-Nephews had returned once again.
Holy Orders
Under the sacrament of Holy Orders, the Catholic Church recognizes various kinds of monastic orders that have formed over the centuries by Christians seeking a more purified lifestyle. Holy Orders are not unique to Catholicism, or even Christianity, but Catholic monks are known by specific sets of rules that were established in the early centuries of the Middle Ages. Some monastic orders formed from military fraternities that were founded immediately after the First Crusade. The Templars are the largest and wealthiest of these military orders. They were originally founded in 1119, and were based out of the Temple Mount at Jerusalem. The Templars briefly lost significant lands and wealth during the Iohannan War, as several nations in Western Europe sided with the Barcelona Papacy who called for the Templars' dissolution. The Council of Trier restored the Templar Order in 1312, but some church property lost in the war would not be fully recovered until the early 15th century.
Another, much later fraternal military order is the Order of Merchants and Pilgrims of St. Nicholas of Bari, commonly known as the Order of Bari. The order was originally founded in 1336 by a group of Dutch merchants, in order to provide protection for pilgrims traveling from Lothringia to the tomb of St. Nicholas. Anatolia at this time was in constant state of war, with the collapse of the Byzantine empire and the mounting invasions of Turkish Beyliks and Italian colonies. The 130 members of the Order invaded Anatolia that same year, and established their headquarters on the island of Karpathos. The Pope gave official recognition to the Order in 1337. The Order of Bari eventually became a regional power due to their support of the Barbary Crusade that established the Kingdom of Tripolitania in the 1390s. The Order of Nordic Piety was established in 1343 by Robert Arnasson in Iceland, based on a military fraternity of his comrades from the Grenada Crusade. The Order was most instrumental in the conquest of Greenland, which was seen by Iceland as a holy war against the pagan Norse.
Some monastic orders prefer living a more hermetic, impoverished lifestyle living as traveling beggars. This was true for the Carmelite Order, founded by monks at Mount Carmel within the Kingdom of Jerusalem. They originally based their spiritual lifestyle off the life of the Prophet Elijah from the Old Testament. After the Carmelites migrated into Rome in the 1330s, Pope Sixtus IV helped to formalize their rules and establish a permanent residence for their monastery. This was also the case for the Beguine Order, which was a group of religious women with no formalized rule or organized community. After the Beguine movement grew rapidly in the 1330s, Pope Clement V finally facilitated these women to organize a formal convent, now known as the Beguine Order. They proved to be particularly instrumental in the movement for clerical poverty and anti-simony.
An aesthetic order of monks in Lothringia is the Saint Columbanus Messengers, inhabiting Wadden Island in Frisia. The exact origin of the Saint Columbanus Messengers is shrouded in legend. Reportedly, when the monks arrived on the island it was viscously infested with rats, making sustaining food almost impossible. But after prayer to Saint Columbanus, squirrels miraculously spawned across the island and chased the rats away. From that point onward, the Saint Columbanus Messengers lived a very simple and communal lifestyle, taking special veneration of the squirrels which God granted them.
For a long time, the status of the Saint Columbanus Messengers within the Catholic church was somewhat nebulous. The Archduke of Lothringia attempted to suppress the religion for many years, but this was difficult to enforce in the surrounding Frisian countryside. During the Marcian schism and subsequent fall of Emperor Vincent, the Pope Benedict XI officially condemned the Columbanus messengers as heretical, and their veneration of squirrels was idolatry. During the Council of Rome, Pope Martin V helped to reconcile the Messengers, and finally recognized their status as a legitimate monastic order.
One of the largest and most diverse monastic orders in the Catholic Church is the Order of Divine Mercy, also commonly called the Mercidenes or Blue Monks. Founded in 1309 by the Schwanthler Twins, the order bases their rule on three major points: chastity, simplicity, and mercy. Some anecdotes claim that the Twin Saints prophesied that Baldwin of Luxembourg would become Pope, but this is not confirmed. Pope Gregory XI recognized the order in 1313, before he had even left Trier to assume his place in Rome. He even proclaimed an era of devotion to Divine Mercy as central to his Papacy.
The Order has two different branches for both nuns and monks. The Convent of Our Lady of Sorrows was created by Catherine Schwanthler near the Basilica of Saint Paul Outside the Walls. The Monastery of Saint Simeon was created by Matthias Schwanthler near the Basilica of Santa Maria di Trastevere. During their lifetime, the Order of Divine Mercy immediately worked at providing food for the impoverished of Rome during the Great Famine of 1315, to the extent of growing and cooking their own food. This iconic food invented by the Order of Divine Mercy was originally called "Mercy Bread", but is often referred to as "Nut bread". When the Schwanthler twins died in 1335, the common people were known to shout "Saint! Saint!" during their entire funeral procession.
The Church of Divine Mercy in Viterbo was built in 1317. The Order of Divine Mercy was prolific in their evangelism, most notably in the conversion of Lithuania to Christianity. They constructed hospitals and centers of education for Eastern Europe during the domination of the Premyslid Dynasty. By the 1340s, the Order had become widespread across much of the region, and the King of Bohemia was made their official patron. In 1344, the Swiss Confederacy donated a large section of land east of Schwyz to the Order.
Doctrine
Ecumenical Councils
Outside of the regular administration of the Catholic Church, the Pope has authority to convene a broader council that has implications over the entire Church organization and theology, known as an Ecumenical Council. An Ecumenical Council is rare, and requires representation of all diocese across the entire Catholic world. The original Ecumenical Councils took place early in the history of Christianity, settling major theological disputes such as trinitarianism, Christology, and canon of scripture. These councils claim to trace authority from the original Apostles, who convened a council in Jerusalem in 52 AD to settle a dispute over circumcision and Mosaic law. Most Christian denominations recognizes the earliest Ecumenical Councils, but the Catholic Church diverges by only recognizing councils called by the Pope.
The Council of Trier in 1312 condemned the schism of the Church caused by Pope John XXI and the Antipope Callixtus IV, and elected Pope Gregory XI to succeed them. The conflict surrounding this schism is known as the Iohannan War named after John XXI. It also condemned the Simony that led to the schism, and pushed for reforms of the Church. The Council of York lasted from 1380-1383 to settle the dispute of the Lollard movement led by John Wycliffe, called by Pope Clement VI. A mass peasant revolt in England and the ongoing Hundred Years War forced the Council to move to Berwick in 1382. The Council of Prague was held from 1411-1415 to similarly settle the dispute of the Church held by Jan Hus. This was not quite as successful, as the political opponents of Pope Benedict XI refused to send bishops to the Council, which consequently led to the Marcian schism and Hussite Wars in Lothringia. After the schism was resolved, Pope Martin V called the Council of Rome that lasted from 1428-1432. This council attempted to reconcile with the Taborite Hussites, accepted the Saint Columbanus Messengers back into the church, and organized the Ecclesiastical Tribunal to have authority over the College of Cardinals.
Saints and devotions
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An important theme of Catholic dogma is the veneration of the Virgin Mary and the Saints. The Blessed Virgin Mary (18 BC-c.59 AD) was the biological mother of Jesus Christ, and in Catholicism is referred to as the theotokos or "Mother of God". She is believed to be Immaculately Conceived, which means born without the original sin felt by the rest of humanity. She was also believed to never physically die, but was bodily assumed into Heaven just like Jesus. The term "Saint" in Christianity refers to anyone who is physically in the presence of God in Heaven. In the Catholic Church, both Mary and the Saints intercede to God on behalf of Christians through prayer and veneration.
For this reason, the Catholic Church maintains an official canon of Saints which are confirmed by miracles being performed through prayer or veneration to that Saint. As miracles come from God, this confirms that the Saint is in the presence of God. While many other Christian denominations do have recognized canons of Saints, this special veneration and Marian cult is unique to the Catholic Church, and often receives criticism for being a kind of idolatry. This Marian dogma in Catholicism was heavily studied during the scientific movement in the Renaissance, particularly by the University of St. Augustine in Rome. Leonardo de Nacho's tenure as headmaster of the university helped propel the Marian cult, and by extension through his students as well. In the 1420s, the philosophers Ari Sturlungur and Friar Cattaneo debated on the doctrine of Mary's Immaculate Conception, as Cattaneo argued that Mary received salvation through Christ like everyone else, as told by Thomas Aquinas. His proposal was ultimately not accepted, and in 1427 the Pope Martin V officially sided with Ari's position on Immaculate Conception.
Here are some Saints canonized by the Catholic Church in the 14th-15th centuries:
- Matthias and Catherina Schwanthler (1290-1335), founded the Order of Divine Mercy
- Ari Guðmundsson (fl. 1330s), Archbishop of Iceland
- Wenceslas III of Bohemia (1289-1329), King of Bohemia and Poland
- Federico Goikoetxea (1256-1323), Antipope Leo X and Patriarch of the Western Catholic Church
- Baldwin of Luxembourg (1285-1327), Pope Gregory XI
- Elena Cimorelli (1336-1383), founded the Workers of Charity
- Anna Forti (1392-1432), visionary aesthetic of Monte Caresa
- Owain Lawgoch (1330-1402), first independent Prince of Wales
The Schwanthler twins or the "Twin Saints" originated from an affluent background in Western Germany, and moved to Trier as soon as they reached adulthood. They first arrived at Koblenz Monastery in 1308, and were adopted by the Prior Berthold Fischer. After seeking an audience with Archbishop Baldwin of Luxembourg (the future Pope Gregory XI), they describe visions they have had from both Christ and Angels since their childhood, who have recently instructed them to bring Divine Mercy to the world in the face of the ongoing Aragonese Schism. It was during these years of the schism that the twins founded the Order of Divine Mercy, which they ministered until their deaths. Ari Guðmundsson is a beloved bishop and saint from the people of Iceland. He is best known for his mystical experiences seeing the layers of Hell. The writings attributed to him from the 1330s have been kept in the Sistine Library.
Federico Goikoetxea is beloved as a saint of the Basque people in Spain, who founded the Western Catholic Church recognized within the Roman hierarchy. He was an outspoken supporter of church reform, and in particular criticizing the Simony associated with the Papacy of John XXI. At the conclusion of the Iohannan War and the Council of Trier, Federico adopted the title of Pope Leo X and officially cut off from Rome, seeing as it had fallen into corruption. He later reconciled with Gregory XI, and secured the Western Catholic Church as an independent Catholic rite.
Elena Cimorelli first arrived to Rome during the Jubilee of 1350, and quickly became enamored with the Order of Divine Mercy. Her parents attempted to press her into marriage, but she was determined to become a nun instead. In 1352, she received her first vision of Christ's infinite love. She was eventually able to choose her own destiny with the help of Father Fabozzi, allowing her to attract a large following of women adopting a similar aesthetic lifestyle. She founded the Workers of Charity in 1357, establishing their first convent in her hometown of Ostia. She first received the stigmata from her visions in 1369.
Anna Forti came from a very rural community of Migliarelli. Her first miraculous experience was in 1405, where she became healed from a seemingly-terminal illness. In 1406, Anna Forti received the vision now commonly known as Our Lady of Ceresea. This vision consisted of the Virgin Mary and four saints, who each provided unique advice for the Church: every Christian help the sick; it isn't necessary to live in a great or well known place to work in God's name; the Christians must show the Mercy of Christ to all nations; the Christians need to pray for those that don't know about Christ. This vision is recorded in stunning detail by the report of Pedro de Luna, the Cardinal-Secretary and future Pope Benedict XI. Anna's continued visions and reports of miraculous healing attracted a large crowd of interested parties, to the point where the Pope Alexander V dispatched troops to guard her house. There is also some speculation that Anna Forti's career helped to inspire the Marian debates on theology at the University of St. Augustine. This vision of Our Lady of Ceresea, also known as Our Lady of Hope, has become a central mythos to the town of Migliarelli, where the Church of Our Lady of Hope was built in 1426. In honor of her memory, the Anna Forti chapel was added to this church in 1441, which includes the statue of Our Lady of Hope.
When eastern Europe was overwhelmed by the forces of Timur in the 1390s, Pope Clement VI declared all the Catholics who had been killed in the Sack of Moscow were recognized as saints, henceforth known as the Martyrs of the Steppes. July 27 is known as the feast day for these martyrs to this day. Our Lady of Victory is an important image of the Virgin Mary that was venerated particularly after the successful defeat of the Ottoman Empire, during the Anatolian Crusade of the 1350s. Filippo Bruneschelli was the first to design the architecture for the Basilica of Our Lady of Victory, which was built piecemeal between 1402-1460. The feast day of Our Lady of Victory is recognized as October 7.
And some Blesseds recognized by the Catholic Church:
- Francesca Occhino (d. 1318), philanthropist for the Fund of the Poor
- Róbert Arnasson (d. 1348), founded the Order of Nordic Piety
Francesca Occhino was originally a member of the Third Order of St. Francis, and wanted to move to the Order of St. Claire. Her parents forced her into a marriage instead, but reportedly she never consumated this marriage until her husband had died. During the Great Famine of 1315, she worked tirelessly to support the Order of Divine Mercy and the Fund of the Poor. Upon her death in 1318, she willed all her worldly possessions to the Church, which was used to establish this same fund of charity. Robert Arnasson has a long military career in Iceland, first supporting the conquest of Grenada by the House of Barcelona, and then moving to Greenland to eliminate the last pockets of Norse paganism there.
And some Venerables recognized by the Church:
- Gregory of Rimini (1300-1358), Austrian Scholastic philosopher
- Margherita Lotti (d. 1457), visionary aesthetic of Cascia
Margherita (or Rita) Lotti is believed to have had an abusive husband, who was violently murdered by his financial rivals. After this incident, Rita became an Augustinian nun in Cascia, and lived at the Monastery of Mary Magdalene. She first received the stigmata in 1453, along with other miracles attributed to her.
Finally, some Servants of God recognized by the Church:
- John I of Brabant (1253-1294), Duke of Brabant
- William of Ockham (1287-1347), English Scholastic philosopher
- Peter Lombard (1096-1160), Italian Scholastic philosopher
- Gertrude van der Oosten (d. 1358), aesthetic mystic of Holland
- Mechthild of Madgeburg (1207-1294), aesthetic mystic of Saxony
- Johannes Tauler (1300-1361), Dominican theologian
Afterlife
Another dogma of Catholicism is the existence of Purgatory, a limbo state of the afterlife separate from Heaven or Hell. A Christian who is saved will ultimately go to Heaven, but first spends time in Purgatory in order to be purged of original sin. Time in purgatory can be reduced by acts of faith or loyalty to the Church, also known as indulgences. These indulgences can usually take the form of acts of charity donated to the Church, or pilgrimage to a Holy Relic. Acceptance of salvation (or Soteriology) of Catholicism is summarized as the Seven Sacraments: Baptism, Confirmation, Eucharist, Confession, Anointing the Sick, Holy Orders, and Matrimony.
Catholicism officially also believes in the existence of demonic activity and their supernatural effects, although this is not a major part of the religion. During the Renaissance of the 15th century, the study of demons and magic was heavily studied across universities of Germany and Italy, known systematically as the science of Demonology. The definitive work on demonology was the "Codex of Hell" by Ari II Aarson, published at the University of St. Augustine in 1440.
Footnotes
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