Anatolian Republic
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The Republic of Anatolia and Thrace (Turkish: Cumhuriyet-i Anadolu ve Rumeli), informally known as Anatolian Republic, or Anatolia or Turkey (archaically) is a transcontinental country located on Western Anatolian peninsula in Asia, with a smaller portion on the Balkan peninsula in Southeastern Europe. The Republic is bordered on its northwest by Greece and Bulgaria; to the east by Armenia and Georgia and to the south and southwest by Syria. The Black Sea, Mediterranean Sea and Aegean Sea from the country's maritime borders. The country's official languages are Turkish, which is written in both Arabic script and Latin script) and Greek.
Republic of Anatolia and Thrace Cumhuriyet-i Anadolu ve Rumeli جمهوریتی آناضولو و روم ایلی Δημοκρατία της Ανατολίας και της Θράκης Demokratia tes Anatolias kai tes Ţrakis Anatolian Republic Turkey (archaic) | |
|---|---|
 Flag | |
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Anthem: "Cumhuriyet Marşı" | |
 | |
| Capital and largest city | Istanbul |
| Official languages |
Ottoman Turkish Turkish Greek |
| Demonym(s) | Anatolian |
| Constituent states (Federal non-sovereign) |
|
| Government | Federal parliamentary republic |
| Nihad Cemil Mentesheli | |
| Nikulay Papazoghlu | |
| Osman VIII | |
| Kelim Kurban Izmirli | |
| Danyal Cübbeli | |
| Legislature | Meclis-i Âlı |
| House of Governors | |
| House of People | |
| History | |
• Proclamation of the Republic | 23 July 1934 |
• Abolishment of Sultanate | 12 August 1934 |
• First Parliament session | 9 December 1934 |
• Ascension of Anatolia | 20 December 1934 |
• Ascension of Thrace | 5 March 1935 |
• New Official Name | 5 March 1935 |
| Area | |
• Total | 546,883.64 km2 (211,152.95 sq mi) |
| Population | |
• 2019 estimate | 65,642,059 |
• Density | 120.03/km2 (310.9/sq mi) (35) |
| Currency | Anatolian Para (P) (ARP) |
| Time zone | UTC+3 |
| Date format | dd/mm/yyy |
| Driving side | right |
| Internet TLD | .aa |
The country is a member of the League of Nations, Central Treaty Organization and an applicant for the European Community (EC) membership. Colloquially, Anatolia is referred to by the pars pro toto Turkey. With a population of 65.6 million people, all living within a total area of roughly 547,000 square kilometers (212,000 sq mi)- the Anatolian Republic is the 35th most densely populated country in the world, with a population density of 120.03 per square kilometres (311/ sq mi).
The Republic has been a presidential federal democratic republic since its founding in 1927. The country ranks high on press freedom, as well as high levels of religiosity.
Etymology
The name Anatolia derives from the Greek "Ἀνατολή" (Anatolḗ) meaning "the East", and designating (from a Greek point of view) eastern regions in general.
The Latinized form "Anatolia", with its -ia ending, is probably a Medieval Latin innovation. The Turkish form Anadolu (اناضولو) derives directly from the Greek name Aνατολή (Anatolḗ).
Whilst, the name of Thrace refers to the Balkan part of the country and is referred to in Turkish as Rumeli (روم ایلی).
The name of the country was declared to be, The Republic of Anatolia and Thrace by the first President Süleyman Shefik Erzurumlu of the country in 1927.
History
The Anatolian Peninsula is one of the oldest permanently settled regions in the world. Thrace has also been inhabited for at least forty thousand years.
Paleolithic Era (500,000 BC–10,000 BC)
The Paleolithic Era, spanning from approximately 500,000 BC to 10,000 BC, represents a crucial period in human history characterized by significant advancements in tool-making, cultural evolution, and the development of early human societies.
One remarkable discovery highlighting Anatolia's Paleolithic history is the unearthing of a stone tool in the Gediz river dating back an astounding 1.2 million years. This finding stands as a testament to the ancient human presence in the region, shedding light on the early technological advancements and the migratory patterns of ancient populations.
Numerous caves across Anatolia serve as compelling evidence of Paleolithic human habitation. Sites such as Burgaz, Karayn, Okuzini, Beldibi, Belbasi, Kumbucayi, and Yadayn present significant archaeological evidence of early human occupation. These caves provide invaluable insights into the daily lives, hunting practices, and social structures of Paleolithic communities. Artefacts discovered within these sites, including stone tools, cave paintings, and remnants of ancient settlements, contribute to our understanding of the Paleolithic era's cultural, social, and technological developments in Anatolia.
Chalcolithic Era (4,000 BC–2,200 BC
Hattians and Hurrians
The Chalcolithic Era, spanning from approximately 4,000 BC to 2,200 BC, marks a crucial period in Anatolian history, characterized by significant developments and the presence of several ancient civilizations, notably the Hattians and Hurrians. These cultures, non-Indo-European in origin, were among the earliest recorded inhabitants of Anatolia, primarily residing in what are now the Eastern regions of the country, dating back as early as 2,300 BC.
Archaeological evidence from various sites across Anatolia provides insights into this era's cultural and societal advancements. Notable archaeological sites such as Hacilar, Beycesultan, Canhasan, Zefirya Yumuktepe, Malatya Degirmentepe, Norsuntepe and İstanbul Fikirtepe have revealed remnants and artefacts shedding light on the lives, technologies, and practices of these ancient civilizations. These sites have offered glimpses into their social structures, craftsmanship, pottery, tools, and possible trading networks, contributing to our understanding of their daily lives and cultural practices during this era.
Bronze Age (2,200 BC–1,000 BC)
Hittites
During the transition into the ancient era, Indo-European Hittites emerged in Anatolia, marking a significant cultural and historical shift around 2,000-1,700 BC. They entered the region and gradually assimilated the indigenous populations of the Hattians and Hurrians, creating a distinctive cultural amalgamation that shaped Anatolia's identity for centuries to come.
The arrival of the Hittites signified a transformative period characterized by the fusion of diverse cultures and traditions. Over time, they not only absorbed the practices and customs of the Hattians and Hurrians but also brought about their unique cultural contributions, leaving a lasting imprint on Anatolia's historical narrative.
This assimilation process wasn't merely about the absorption of cultures; it also involved the exchange of knowledge, technological advancements, and societal developments. The Indo-European Hittites brought with them innovations in language, architecture, metallurgy, and governance, contributing to the emergence of a more sophisticated and interconnected Anatolian society.
Their influence and integration of earlier cultures paved the way for a thriving civilization that showcased a blend of indigenous Anatolian elements with the rich heritage of the Hittites. This fusion of cultures and their subsequent interactions laid the foundation for the multifaceted Anatolian civilization that flourished in the subsequent centuries, leaving an indelible mark on the region's history and cultural landscape.
Phyrgians
In 1180 BC, the Phyrgians, another Indo-European group, rose to prominence in Anatolia, marking a pivotal moment in the region's history. Their ascendancy ushered in a new era characterized by cultural, social, and political developments that significantly impacted Anatolia's trajectory.
The arrival and ascendancy of the Phrygians brought about a transformative period in Anatolia's cultural landscape. As they gained dominance, they established their kingdom and exerted considerable influence over the region, shaping its political dynamics and societal structures.
Known for their distinctive cultural elements, the Phrygians made substantial contributions to Anatolian society. Their advancements in craftsmanship, particularly in metallurgy and artistry, became hallmarks of their culture. The Phrygians' craftsmanship was evident in their exquisite metalwork, intricate pottery, and distinct artistic expressions that reflected their unique identity.
Beyond their artistic prowess, the Phrygians also contributed to the cultural diversity of Anatolia through their language, beliefs, and societal practices. Their influence extended to religious customs, folklore, and architectural styles, leaving enduring imprints on Anatolia's cultural heritage.
Iron Age (1,000 BC–550 BC)
Cimmerians
In the seventh century BC, Anatolia witnessed a significant shift in power dynamics as the Phrygian Kingdom faced the emergence of the Cimmerians, a nomadic group of people whose presence in the region signaled a period of turmoil and upheaval.
The Cimmerians, known for their nomadic lifestyle and military prowess, managed to supplant the established Phrygian Kingdom, marking a significant turning point in Anatolia's political landscape. Their incursions and military campaigns disrupted the existing order, causing instability and contributing to a period of unrest in the region.
As the Cimmerians established their influence and control over parts of Anatolia, their nomadic lifestyle contrasted sharply with the settled societies of the region. Their nomadic nature allowed them to move swiftly across territories, challenging the established kingdoms and leaving a trail of uncertainty and disruption in their wake.
The arrival of the Cimmerians in Anatolia brought about a period of political transition and reshaping. Their military activities and incursions significantly impacted the established kingdoms and societies, reshuffling power structures and leading to a phase of uncertainty and conflict.
While the Cimmerians' rule was relatively short-lived, their presence in Anatolia during the seventh century BC left a lasting impression on the region's history. Their incursions and interactions with
Lydia, Caria and Lycia
Following the decline of the Phrygian Kingdom in ancient Anatolia, several successor states emerged, among which Lydia, Caria, and Lycia stood out as the most prominent and influential.
Lydia, situated in western Anatolia, rose to prominence as one of the significant powers in the region. Renowned for its wealth and advancements, Lydia's capital, Sardis, became a center of commerce and culture. The Lydian Kingdom, under rulers like King Croesus, thrived economically, amassing significant riches, particularly due to its gold resources and the innovative introduction of coinage.
Caria, located in southwestern Anatolia along the Aegean coast, also became a notable successor state. Its principal cities, such as Halicarnassus (modern-day Bodrum), developed into influential cultural centers. Caria displayed a blend of Greek and Anatolian cultural elements, fostering significant artistic and architectural achievements.
Lycia, situated in the southern regions of Anatolia along the Mediterranean coast, emerged as another influential successor state. Known for its distinctive artistic traditions and impressive funerary architecture, Lycia maintained a unique cultural identity within the broader Anatolian context.
Greek Colonies
During this period, the coastal regions of Anatolia experienced substantial colonization by Aeolian and Ionian Greeks, leading to the establishment of numerous influential cities. These colonies became significant centers of trade, culture, and innovation, shaping the history of the region.
Miletus, located in western Anatolia, emerged as a prominent Greek city. It played a crucial role in maritime trade and became known for its cultural and intellectual contributions, including the birth of famous philosophers such as Thales and Anaximander.
Ephesus, situated near the Aegean coast, gained eminence as a commercial and cultural hub. Its Temple of Artemis was renowned as one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. Ephesus thrived as a center of learning and arts, drawing notable figures like Heraclitus, the philosopher, and the Apostle Paul, who resided and preached there.
Smyrna, known today as İzmir, flourished as a vital seaport and commercial center. It became a melting pot of cultures and ethnicities, contributing to its diverse and cosmopolitan character.
Byzantium, established at the crossroads of Europe and Asia, eventually became Constantinople and later Istanbul, serving as the capital of the Byzantine Empire. It held strategic importance due to its location, emerging as a center for politics, trade, and culture.
The Greek myth of Hero and Leander, set in the ancient city of Sestus (now Sase), became a source of inspiration for Anatolian folklore of Şirzan ile Şirdıl, contributing to the rich tapestry of local legends and stories.
According to legend, Aeneas, a Trojan hero from the epic poem "Aeneid," founded the city of Aenus (now Enez) during his legendary travels. This mythical foundation tale added to the cultural and historical significance of the region.
Odyrisians
The Odyrisians, an ancient Thracian tribe, played a pivotal role in the early history of Thrace, establishing the first recognized kingdom in the region. Their ascendancy and prominence marked a significant milestone in the formation of organized political structures within Thrace.
As the initial kingdom in Thrace, the Odyrisians held considerable influence and power, establishing themselves as a dominant force in the area. Their kingdom extended across various territories within Thrace, and their rulers aimed to consolidate authority and foster a sense of unity among the Thracian tribes.
The legacy of the Odyrisian Kingdom holds a revered place among Thracian irredentists, who view this historical entity as the first established nation-state in their ancestral lands. The Odyrisian kingdom's significance transcends the realm of history, becoming a symbol of unity, sovereignty, and the early aspirations for a recognized Thracian identity.
Thracists venerate the Odyrisian Kingdom, honoring its legacy as a testament to Thracian heritage and the early foundation of their cultural and national identity. This historical kingdom continues to inspire a sense of pride and belonging among those who seek recognition and preservation of Thracian culture, history, and territorial rights.
Persian Achaemenid Empire
The Persian Achaemenid Empire, under the rule of the Achaemenid dynasty, expanded its dominion to encompass Anatolia and Thrace in the sixth century BC. Led by the influential Persian king Cyrus the Great, the empire pursued an extensive campaign of conquest, gradually incorporating Anatolia and Thrace into its vast territorial expanse.
This conquest marked a significant shift in Anatolia's political landscape, as the Achaemenid Empire's control extended across the region. The empire's expansion into Anatolia brought about notable cultural and administrative changes, introducing Persian influence and governance practices to the region.
Under Persian rule, Anatolia witnessed a fusion of diverse cultures and traditions, as the Achaemenid Empire sought to administer its territories with a degree of tolerance toward local customs. While imposing its authority, the empire allowed regions within Anatolia a certain level of autonomy, enabling local governance structures to coexist alongside the Persian administration.
The annexation by the Achaemenid Empire led to a period of considerable interaction between Anatolia and the wider Persian realm. This interaction facilitated trade, cultural exchanges, and the spread of Persian influence, leaving a lasting imprint on Anatolia's historical and cultural evolution during this era.
Later, another Persianate dynasty would rule over, in the form of Seljuks.
Ancient History (550 BC–500 AD)
Thracian soldiers were a component of the Persian Army.
Greco-Persian War (499 BC)
In 499 BC, The Greek city-states rebelled against the Persian rule during the Greco-Persian War (499 BC).
Macedonians
In 344 BC, Alexander the Great occupied the territory. Thracian soldiers assisted Alexander in his Invasion of Persia.
Thrace had started adopting Greek culture slowly in this period.
Diadochi Era
The Diadochi Era, marked by the division of Alexander the Great's empire among his generals, ushered in a period of significant territorial shifts and power struggles across Anatolia and Thrace. Upon Alexander's demise in 323 BC, the region underwent a fragmentation of authority among his closest generals, known as the Diadochi.
In this era, Thrace fell under the control of Lysimachus, a prominent general in Alexander's army. Lysimachus established his rule over Thrace, asserting authority and consolidating power within this strategic region.
Meanwhile, the remainder of Anatolia found itself divided between the Selecuid and Ptolemaic empires. These competing successor states vied for control over different territories of Anatolia, engaging in conflicts and diplomatic maneuvers to expand their spheres of influence.
The Seleucid Empire, led by one of Alexander's generals, Seleucus I Nicator, claimed portions of Anatolia, asserting its dominion over various regions within the peninsula. Simultaneously, the Ptolemaic Kingdom, centered in Egypt under Ptolemy I Soter, also extended its reach into Anatolia, marking its influence in specific territories.
This division of Anatolia and Thrace among the Diadochi led to a complex geopolitical landscape marked by shifting alliances, military campaigns, and intermittent conflicts as each successor state sought to expand its territorial control and assert dominance over the region. The struggle for supremacy among these Hellenistic kingdoms played a pivotal role in shaping the political and territorial landscape of Anatolia and Thrace during the Diadochi Era.
Romans
Following the incorporation of Thrace into the Roman sphere of influence after the Third Macedonian War in 168 BC, it transitioned from being a tributary to eventually becoming a Roman province. This change brought forth a significant transformation in the region's political and cultural landscape.
Under Roman authority, the influence of Greek culture, which had been prevalent since the era of Alexander the Great's conquests, continued to proliferate. The process of Hellenization, which involved the spread of the Greek language, customs, and culture, gained momentum during Roman rule. This cultural amalgamation further solidified the blending of Hellenistic and Roman influences within the region.
Within the broader Anatolian territory that now constitutes the Anatolian Republic, the Romans administered the land through the establishment of several provinces. These included Thracia, Galatia, Cappadocia, Asia, Cilicia, Bithynia et Pontus, and Lycia et Pamphylia. Each of these provinces had its distinct administrative and cultural characteristics, contributing to the diverse tapestry of the Roman Anatolia.
Moreover, during Roman rule, there was a policy of granting citizenship and privileges to certain Thracian inhabitants. This inclusion into Roman citizenship provided certain benefits and rights to the local population, enabling them to participate more actively in Roman society and governance.
The Roman period in Anatolia played a crucial role in shaping the region's cultural, administrative, and societal structures, leaving a lasting legacy that impacted the subsequent history and identity of the Anatolian and Thracian lands.
Parthians
From the 1st century BC up to the third century AD, large territories were contested between Romans and Parthians.
According to the Acts of Apostles 11, Antioch (now, Antakya) was the birthplace of the first Christian community.
In 324, Constantine I declared Byzantium (later, Constantinople; now, İstanbul), as the new capital of the Roman Empire. The city continues to be a capital city for continuously 1697 years as of 2021.
The Battle of Adrianople that took place in the present city of Edirne led to the Roman defeat and the beginning of its decline.
Byzantines
In 395 AD, the Roman Empire experienced a significant division, with the territories of Thrace and Anatolia coming under the Eastern Roman Empire, often referred to as the Byzantine Empire. This separation marked a distinct political and cultural shift within the Roman realm.
Under the Byzantine Empire, the governance structure underwent a significant transformation. The empire was divided into administrative regions known as themes, each governed by a provincial leader called a Tekfur in Turkish. These Tekfurs held considerable authority over their respective territories, overseeing local governance, military affairs, and administration.
During the Byzantine era, Constantinople, the capital city, flourished, reclaiming and further enhancing its prominence as a center of culture, trade, and art. The city reached its zenith in terms of prosperity and influence, displaying a resurgence of its former Roman grandeur. Constantinople remained a crucial stronghold and was among the last territories of the Byzantine Empire to succumb to Ottoman conquest in 1453, marking the end of the Byzantine era and the beginning of Ottoman rule in the region. Despite its fall, Constantinople's rich legacy continued to influence the cultural and political landscape of the region for centuries to come.
Early Middle Ages (5th century CE–10th century CE)
Bulgarians
Thrace's historical narrative under Byzantine rule saw a pivotal shift in the seventh century when the region underwent a significant division. At this juncture, Thrace was separated, with its northern territories falling under the domain of the burgeoning First Bulgarian Empire, while the southern portion remained part of the Byzantine Empire, designated as the Byzantine theme of Thrace.
This division catalyzed a series of consequential conflicts between the Byzantines and Bulgarians, each vying for dominance and control over Thrace. Over several centuries, the region became a focal point of contention, witnessing a relentless series of clashes, battles, and territorial disputes between these two formidable powers.
The struggle for supremacy over Thrace led to successive conflicts and frequent territorial exchanges between the Byzantine Empire and the First Bulgarian Empire. The control and ownership of the land shifted multiple times between these rival entities, each seeking to consolidate its influence and expand its dominion over the strategic region.
The intense and protracted conflicts endured for several centuries, persisting through the medieval period and well into the 14th century. The power struggles and territorial disputes in Thrace during this era were emblematic of the geopolitical complexities and the relentless struggle for control that characterized the historical narrative of the region.
Sassanians
The struggle for control between the Byzantine Empire and the Sassanian Empire persisted as a defining feature of Anatolian history, extending through the first half of the seventh century. This prolonged conflict was marked by a series of military campaigns, strategic maneuvers, and territorial disputes that underscored the geopolitical significance of Anatolia in the ancient world.
Anatolia, with its strategic position between the Byzantine Empire and the Sassanian Empire, became a battleground for these two formidable powers. Both empires sought to assert their dominance and expand their territorial influence over this crucial region, leading to frequent confrontations and prolonged periods of contention.
The struggle for control of Anatolia was characterized by shifting territorial boundaries, frequent invasions, and military campaigns launched by both sides. This prolonged conflict not only underscored the geopolitical importance of Anatolia but also reflected the enduring rivalry and power dynamics between the Byzantines and the Sassanians.
The strategic significance of Anatolia, owing to its geographic location and economic prosperity, fueled the relentless efforts of both empires to establish hegemony over this pivotal territory. The contest for dominance in Anatolia persisted as a key aspect of Byzantine-Sassanian relations until the first half of the seventh century, shaping the historical narrative and geopolitical landscape of the region during this era.
Higher Middle Ages (1,000 CE–1,250 CE)
Seljuks
The Seljuks from Kınık branch of Oghuz Turks penetrated Anatolia by the later half of the eleventh century. In 1071, Seljuks led by Alp Arslan defeated Byzantines at the Battle of Manzikert (the city is now in Kurdistan), opening the gate to Anatolia. The Seljuk period ushered in rapid development of Anatolia, after years of inactivity by the provincial Byzantine administrators. Seljuks were patrons of Persian art and architecture.
In 1243, Seljuks were defeated by the Mongols at the Battle of Köse Dağ, causing the Seljuk Empire's power to slowly disintegrate.
Mongols and Catalan Company
The Byzantines faced great trouble in Thrace when a Mongol invasion led by Nogai Khan ravaged the theme, followed by Catalan Company rebels. However, Mongols made their presence permanent in Anatolia till 1294, after which they lost their territories in what is now the Anatolian Republic. With the fall of the last Western Mongol remnant, the Ilkhanate in the 1330s the Mongol threat was over. The Mongol and post-Mongol eras are known for ushering in a period wherein small beyliks were gaining power and lands.
Late Middle Ages (1250 CE–1500 CE)
Ottomans
In the wake of Seljuk's defeat, one of the Turkish beyliks governed by Osman I. The Ottomans grew fast and started conquering their neighboring Beyliks by diplomacy, matrimony or conquest. The Ottomans gained their first territory in Thrace as the Çimpe Castle. Later, the Ottomans captured Adrinapole, which was made the second capital of the Ottomans in Edirne. The Ottomans faced a setback, when Timur invaded and captured their Sultan. However, within a few years, they achieved what they had lost.
The Ottomans completed their conquest of the Byzantine Empire by capturing its capital, Constantinople, in 1453; their commander thenceforth being known as Mehmed the Conqueror, an event with immense religious significance for the Muslims. The newly acquired city was made the Ottoman capital.
Ottomans had also ended the Serbian Despostate, Kingdom of Bosnia and other minor states in the region.
Early Modern Age (1500 CE–1800 CE)
In 1514, Sultan Selim I (1512–1520) successfully expanded the empire's southern and eastern borders by defeating Shah Ismail I of the Safavid dynasty in the Battle of Chaldiran. In 1517, Selim I expanded Ottoman rule into Algeria and Egypt, and created a naval presence in the Red Sea and successfully ending the rule of the rival Mamluks and bringing them into submission.
Subsequently, a contest started between the Ottoman and Portuguese empires to become the dominant sea power in the Indian Ocean, with several naval battles in the Red Sea, the Arabian Sea and the Arabian Gulf. The Portuguese presence in the Indian Ocean was perceived as a threat to the Ottoman monopoly over the ancient trade routes between East Asia and Western Europe. The Ottomans aided the Gujarat Sultanate in its struggle against the Portuguese. Despite the increasingly prominent European presence, the Ottoman Empire's trade with the East continued to flourish until the second half of the 18th century.
The Second Ottoman Siege of Vienna in 1683 (the First Ottoman Siege of Vienna was in 1529) initiated the Great Turkish War (1683–1699) between the Ottomans and a Holy League of European states.
The Ottoman Empire's power and prestige peaked in the 16th and 17th centuries, particularly during the reign of Suleiman the Magnificent, who personally instituted major legislative changes relating to society, education, taxation and criminal law. The empire was often at odds with the Holy Roman Empire in its steady advance towards Central Europe through the Balkans and the southern part of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. The Ottoman Navy contended with several Holy Leagues, such as those in 1538, 1571, 1684 and 1717 (composed primarily of Habsburg Spain, the Republic of Genoa, the Republic of Venice, the Knights of St. John, the Papal States, the Grand Duchy of Tuscany and the Duchy of Savoy), for the control of the Mediterranean Sea. In the east, the Ottomans were often at war with Safavid Persia over conflicts stemming from territorial disputes or religious differences between the 16th and 18th centuries. The Ottoman wars with Persia continued as the Zand, Afsharid, and Qajar dynasties succeeded the Safavids in Iran, until the first half of the 19th century. Even further east, there was an extension of the Habsburg-Ottoman conflict, in that the Ottomans also had to send soldiers to their farthest and easternmost vassal and territory, the Aceh Sultanate in Southeast Asia, to defend it from European colonizers as well as the Latino invaders who had crossed from Latin America and had Christianized the formerly Muslim-dominated Philippines. From the 16th to the early 20th centuries, the Ottoman Empire also fought twelve wars with the Russian Tsardom and Empire. These were initially about Ottoman territorial expansion and consolidation in southeastern and eastern Europe; but starting from the Russo-Turkish War (1768–1774), they became more about the survival of the Ottoman Empire, which had begun to lose its strategic territories in the northern Black Sea coast to the advancing Russians.
Late Modern Period (1800 CE–1950 CE)
From the second half of the 18th century onwards, the Ottoman Empire began to decline. The Tanzimat reforms, initiated by Mahmud II just before he died in 1839, aimed to modernise the Ottoman state in line with the progress that had been made in Western Europe. The efforts of Midhat Pasha during the late Tanzimat era led the Ottoman constitutional movement of 1876, which introduced the First Constitutional Era, but these efforts proved to be inadequate in most fields and failed to stop the dissolution of the empire. As the empire gradually shrank in size, military power and wealth; especially after the Ottoman economic crisis and default in 1875 which led to uprisings in the Balkan provinces that culminated in the Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878); many Balkan Muslims migrated to the Empire's heartland in Anatolia, along with the Circassians fleeing the Russian conquest of the Caucasus. The decline of the Ottoman Empire led to a rise in nationalist sentiment among its various subject peoples.
Independence Movements
Starting from the early 1800s onwards, the Ottoman Empire would be shaken by various independence movements seeking to break away from the declining empire. During the 19th century, these independence movements were largely concentrated in Southeastern Europe and other predominantly Christian parts of the empire. But by the 20th century, the Ottomans also began to lose control over the Arab parts of their empire, culminating in the Collapse of the Empire in 1935 amid the Great War.
Bulgarian and East Rumelian Independence
The Russo-Turkish War of 1877–78 resulted in the formation of the third and current Bulgarian state. Many ethnic Bulgarians were left outside the new nation's borders, which stoked irredentist sentiments that led to several conflicts with its neighbors during the Second and Third Balkan War, and the Great War. Several, Bulgarian Muslims and Jews were exiled to Istanbul, and were recieved by the Sublime Porte.
The Berlin Congress carved out an independent vassal centered in Plovdiv for the Ottomans, that was named Rumeli-i Şarkî (Eastern Rumelia) in 1878. Seeing opportunity in 1885, Rumeli-i Şarkî aceded into Bulgaria. This served a major thraw to the Ottomans, having lost most of their European and North Thracian territories. The Ottomans viewed Ferdinand I of Bulgaria, as a traitor who in capacity of his vassalhood merged both the crowns of Bulgaria and Eastern Rumelia.
However, things would fast change during the Great War, when the Bulgarian and Anatolans found themselves at the same side. Military and Governmental cooperation between the countries would be dubbed by contemproaries as "Brothers of Balkans".
Greek Independence
During the 1820s after Greece won its war of independence and emerged as a nation-state in the 1830s. Greece was placed under monarchial rule by the foreign royal family from the 1830s until the 20th century.
The Treaty of Adrianople (also called the Treaty of Edirne) concluded the Russo-Ottoman War of 1828–29, between Imperial Russia and the Ottoman Empire. The terms favored Russia, which gained access to the mouths of the Danube and new territory on the Black Sea. The treaty opened the Dardanelles to all commercial vessels, granted autonomy to Serbia (Sırbistan), and promised autonomy for Greece. It also allowed Russia to occupy Moldavia (Boğdan) and Walachia (Eflâkistan) until the Ottoman Empire had paid a large indemnity; those indemnities were later reduced. The treaty was signed on 14 September 1829 in Adrianople by Count Alexey Fyodorovich Orlov of Russia and Abdülkadir Bey of the Ottoman Empire.
During the 20th century, Greece would emerge as a prominent regional power in the Balkans that was at odds with the Ottoman Empire and made diplomatic overtures towards various nations, most notably Russia, and ended with close ties with Russia.
Great Arab Revolt
Armenian Independence
According to the Treaty of Berlin, which concluded with the Anatolian-Armenian compromise; there was a decision to allocate three vilayets (out of the six claimed) to the nascent Armenian state. This compromise aimed at establishing peace, especially considering the ongoing standoff between the Anatolians and the Kurds. The diplomatic resolution sought to address complex geopolitical dynamics and ethnic tensions in the region, contributing to stability and a negotiated settlement, thus laying the groundwork for a more peaceful coexistence in Anatolia.
Kurdish Independence
Great War (1932- 1934)
Before the entrance of the Ottoman Empire in the Great War, the empire had begun to steadily align itself with the interests of Britain and France in the Near East. The loss of its territory in the Balkans had put the Empire in a very unstable political situation. This ultimately led to the culmination of the Ottoman Empire under the control of the Three Pashas, who were nationalistic and sought to reform the Empire under a strictly Turkish identity. The Nationalist foreign policy of the Three Pashas regime and Greece led to the two nations experiencing border skirmishes in the months leading up to the Great War. Ultimately these skirmishes culminated in a declaration of war by the Ottoman Empire.
On 21 June 1932, the Ottoman Empire declared war on German Empire, Greece and Romania via an official communique addressed in support of France and Bulgaria.
The Ottoman First Army crossed the Greek border into Western Thrace on 17th July, led by Fahri Sabit Bahri. The army enjoyed initial successes until being caught unaware near Alexandropouli, with General Ahmed Kenan Preshovali becoming a prisoner of war.
The defeated army moved back into the Anatolian border and regrouped near the village of Karaköy, after being reinforced by the Thracian First Army. The United Army numbering 1,50,000 soldiers moved back into Thrace in September 1932. This time obliterated Grek's defence at the Second Battle of Alexandropouli.
The German Navy attacked Anatolian ports and harassed the Anatolian Navy. Frigate Türgüt was reported of been blown up near Aegean Sea by British ships.
The United First Army then advanced into Macedonia.
At Siege of Kavala, Anatolians defended the city of Kavala bravely for two months after which the German-enforced Greek troops won the siege. The total number of British troops was believed to be 25,000 strong.
After a series of defeats from 1933 onwards, the war grew increasingly unpopular with the subjects of the Empire. The loss of the empire's southern territory in the Great Arab Revolt and losses in the Aegean led to many Ottoman Generals to grow disgruntled with the war effort. Under pressure from leading generals, the Ottoman Empire was forced to accept peace with the Triple Alliance on 7 October 1933, ceding much of its territory to newly established Arab, Armenian, and Kurdish states.
Declaration of the Republic
In the early spring of 1934, the already collapsing markets finally crashed. The wealthy Greeks and Armenians who had for centuries supported the financial system had now moved to their new countries. The financial situation had reached disastrous levels.
Along with this, Cemal Pasha's mistreatment of minorities had created insurgencies in the Empire. To most, the Pasha was a Seffah (executioner). Nobody in the army liked him. He was the symbol of failure.
The domestic situation of the Ottomans was not better either.
The Middle-aged Commander of the Kuva-i Inzibatiye, Süleyman Shefik Erzurumlu faced another disgruntling truth, his hometown of Erzurum was lost to Kurdistan.
Shefik was fed up with the Three Pasha government. He was a comrade of Nazim Pasha, whom Enver Pasha's man had killed. The Three Pashas were a cause of worry for the soldiers. Shefik had met with several other disgruntled leaders and joined the Young Ottomans. He suggested a coup and takeover of the government from the Three Pashas.
The organisation members reluctantly agreed to this idea. However, he was asked to submit a draft plan of action.
Shefik suggested blocking the straits that separated the Asian and European parts of Istanbul. He also suggested placing forces on the Anatolian-Istanbul and Thracian-Istanbul borders.
He is reported to have said:
If Capital falls, The Three Pashas fall too.
Payitaht düşerse, üçpaşalar düşer.
.پایتخت دوشرسه، اوچپاشالر دوشر
In the following week, Shefik contacted Mustafa Kemal Selanikli and Mustafa Ismet Kürümzade, young and talented soldiers of Kuva-i Milliye, who were against the Three Pashas led government.
Both Ismet and Kemal agreed to Shefik's plan. Kemal was made responsible for furthering the coup to Anatolia, while Ismet had to look after Thrace.
Shefik knew that though his plan had to be a top secret, he needed manpower. He was in search of people affected by the Three Pashas.
He established the Kuva-i Hurriyet, comprising members of various sections.
He visited Greek slums (Mekânlar-i Rumlar) and promised the young unemployed to have them hired. The poor Greeks agreed to the incentive. Roughly, every sixth member of the Kuva-i Hurriyet was a Greek.
The next group that was willing to join were Balkan migrants (muhacir pl. muhacirlar), who needed pay, and shelter and wanted to be a part of the nation.
The Kuva-i Hurriyet was a mixture of ethnicities. The common characteristic of these irregulars was poverty. Their lives had been decimated under the Three Pashas.
On 7th August 1934, the Kuva-i Hurriyet marched into Sublime Porte, capturing Cemal Pasha.
The Yildiz Palace was surrounded by the Kuva-i Hurriyet.
A branch of the Galata Gendarmie also joined the movement and captured Talat Pasha while Enver Pasha fled first to Malta and then to Cyprus.
The royal family was assured of their safety. On 23rd of July Abdulmejid II signed the declaration of Republic and officially replaced the Three Pashas with a triumvirate of himself, Shefik Pasha and the Sheikh-ul-Islam. He declared the Kuva-i Hurriyet a part of the Republic's new army.
On 12th August, pressurised Shefik was forced to remove the Sultan's titles and granted him a lesser title of "Shah Veled", making him a ceremonial officeholder. The royal family was given a residence at Pembe Sarayı, which later would be known as Beyt-i Âl-i Osman.
On 9th December, the first meeting of the Meclis-i Âlı was held. The Meclis accepted the ascension of Shefik Pasha as the first President, with Tevfik Pasha as the first Prime Minister.
Ascension of Thrace and Anatolia
On 20th December, Thrace acceded to the Republic.
In January 1935, The Republic established relations with Bulgaria, Greece, Armenia and Kurdistan.
The Shah Veled was approached to ask Anatolians to surrender to Mustafa Kemal Selanikli's army and accede to the Republic.
On 5th March 1935, Anatolia too acceded to the Republic. The same day, Shefik Pasha changed the official name to The Republic of Anatolia and Thrace.
Contemporary History (1935–2000)
Erzurumlu Presidency (1934-1936)
Much of the Anatolian Republic's history was influenced by Erzurumlu's Presidency from 1934 to 1936. In the aftermath of the proclamation of the Republic, there were calls by many Turkish Republicans to expel Greeks and Armenians from Anatolia due to their alleged dual loyalty to Greece and Armenia during the war. This faction of Turkish ethnonationalists was led by republican general Mustafa Kemal Selanikli, who were called Kemalists. However, Erzurumlu did not want to expel these populations for numerous reasons. The biggest being the many Greeks who fought alongside the Republicans during the war and feared German-Greek intervention if they were to expel them.
Instead, Erzurumlu promoted the principle of "Anatolian Peace" and promoted an Anatolian state with multiple people within it. This allowed many of the poorer Greeks to stay within Anatolia and participate in the political process, though this was limited depending on the region. This policy was unpopular among Turkish nationalists and Kemalists, ultimately culminating in an assassination attempt on Erzurumlu in the spring of 1935. After this, Erzurumlu began a crackdown on the Kemalists and other opponents of his government.
Erzurumlu also expanded the powers of the Presidency during this period, arresting those he felt were "disloyal" to the new republic. This remained controversial among those who opposed his Presidency but was backed by his supporters on the grounds of building a stable state in the years following the revolution.
During the remainder of the Great War, Erzurumlu would keep the Anatolian Republic neutral as he continued to consolidate power within Anatolia. Following the occupation of Greece by Landonist forces in 1934, the Anatolian Republic would recognize the newly established Hellenic State to appease the Landonists. At the same time, Anatolia pursued closer ties to Germany while assuring neutrality to France. This balancing act was successful, and the Anatolian Republic never faced military occupation in its fragile early years.
Ethnic Tensions, Gunay Coup (1936)
In the immediate aftermath of his death, elections would be held in Anatolia on 7 April 1936. In arguably the only free and fair elections held during this period of Anatolian history, the far-right Nationalist Turkish Movement (Milliyetçi Türk Hareketi, MTH) party would win the Presidency and a slim majority within the House of People. MTH candidate Mehmed Eyyübzade would be sworn in as President on 16 May 1936. As President, Eyyübzade and the MTH would attempt to pass a bill disbanding the Anatolian Republic and proclaiming a "Republic of Turkey" to re-establish full Turkish hegemony in Anatolia. When the bill would die the House of Governors, Eyyübzade would blame the Anatolian Greeks for "betraying the nation", resulting in ethnic rioting against Greeks occurring in massive cities such as Istanbul.
On 28 June 1936, law and order in Istanbul broke down due to the MHP rioters, resulting in the death of several Greek people within the city. Fearing the dissolution of the Republic and the spread of further anarchy, General and Erzurumlu hardliner Doğan Gunay would stage a military coup against Eyyübzade. Eyyübzade's government would officially be dissolved by the military on 2 July 1936, only 1 month into his tenure. Gunay would proclaim himself President the following day on 3 July 1936. With the backing of the military, Gunay suspended the Meclis-i Âlı, fully consolidating political power into the hands of himself and his supporters. Gunay supporters tended to be Anatolian Greeks, Kurds, middle-class Turks, and urban Turks. The fiercest opposition to Gunay came from Turks who lived inland and tended to support the MTH.
Gunay Presidency (1936 - 1942)
Upon dissolving the Meclis-i Âlı, the first official act of Gunay's Presidency was dismissing Tevfik Pasha as Prime Minister. Unlike Erzurumlu, who sought to use authoritarianism as a means to achieve democracy in Anatolia, Gunay was more ambivalent towards democracy, desiring to hold the Presidency for as long as possible. Gunay's dissolution of democratic institutions early on in his Presidency was done under the guise of creating stability and nation-building. Gunay's early supporters sought to create a correlation between democracy and instability to discourage democratic activism within the country.
The early years of the Gunay Presidency were spent fighting off insurgencies from ethnic Turks within the Anatolian heartland. The Eyyübzade loyalists had established control in the city of Ankara and rural portions of the country. These Eyyübzade loyalists had begun to attack Greek and Kurdish villages in the heartland and refused to submit to Gunay's government. After ensuring loyalty in major cities and within the Anatolian military, Gunay mobilized a large force and began an offensive against the insurrectionists starting in November 1936. Being outclassed militarily, the insurrection would be put down on 12 January 1938 following the fall of Ankara. In the immediate aftermath of the capture of Ankara, Gunay ordered the public execution of the insurrectionist leaders and collaborators within Ankara.
The biggest accomplishment of Gunay's Presidency would be securing international recognition of the Anatolian Republic following the ratification of the Treaty of Berlin on 1 February 1939.
Gunay passed away untimely in 1942, this led to a power vacuum and an early election. Ali Adnan took power in '42 elections, paving way for Cultural Revolution (Tahrir-i Sekafet).
Cultural Revolution (1938 - 1950)
Adnan Presidency (1942-1956)
From 1942 to 1956, Adnan spearheaded a transformative period in Anatolia and Thrace, blending a cultural revival with progressive reforms. His era emphasized cultural pluralism, educational equity, and infrastructural growth. Menderes championed inclusivity, fostering respect for diverse ethnicities and traditions, while promoting unity through educational reforms and fostering artistic expression. Diplomatically, he collaborated with Greece, facilitating migration and cultural exchange, and secured a pact with Bulgaria to safeguard minorities, enhancing bilateral relations. His focus on industrialization via importing advanced technology aligned with his balanced approach, integrating modernization within Islamic principles, and supporting education and welfare, ensuring progress while respecting religious diversity. This era marked a significant chapter, uniting cultural vibrancy, diplomatic engagement, and economic advancements under a banner of inclusivity and progress in the Republic.
First Aleksandros Presidency (1956-1961)
Aleksandros Hacopulos, born on May 21, 1911, in Kasımgürani, Istanbul, hailed from a distinguished Phanariote Greek banking family. Educated in mathematics, banking, and insurance at the Istanbul Higher School of Economics and Commerce, Hacopulos initially pursued a career in teaching and completed military service during the Great War.
His political journey culminated in becoming the fifth president of the Anatolian Republic. His presidency spanned two distinct periods. The first term (1956-1961) emphasized economic reforms, diplomatic overtures with Greece, and internal governance. Critics raised concerns about his extended stays in Athens, questioning his attention to domestic matters. His reign was interrupted by a brief term of Selaheddin Adil from 1961-1966. Hacopulos' warm relations with Greece and Cyprus sparked rumors of a potential merger, leading to a fallout and his replacement. However, an economic crisis brought him back to power. Hacopulos' warm relations with Greece and Cyprus sparked rumors of a potential merger, leading to a fallout and his replacement. However, an economic crisis brought him back to power.
During the second presidential tenure (1966-1971), Hacopulos continued previous policies, possibly exploring social reforms, and adapting to evolving cultural and political climates.
Challenges surfaced during his rule, with regional disparities in support. While Thrace and specific Vilayets backed him, central and eastern Anatolia harbored resentment due to his Greek heritage. Ethnic Turks and Turkmen were wary of a Greek leader in these regions.
His presidency witnessed debates within Greece's Muslim Turkish communities over minority representation, stirring tensions and reflecting broader concerns about minority rights and political representation in both countries.
Present day (2000–present)
Politics
The Anatolian Republic, established as a federal republic in 1934 and formalized through the ratification of its constitution in 1936, stands as a politically vibrant nation characterized by an active and engaged populace. Political discourse and governance in Anatolia are marked by a concerted effort to achieve widespread consensus on critical issues, fostering unity within the political community and across society at large. An inherent emphasis on societal ethics and morality permeates the fabric of governance, transcending the diverse political spectrum prevalent in the country.
Irrespective of the political ideologies espoused, a prevailing conservative inclination shapes the local political mindset, reflecting a broader societal disposition toward more traditional values. Over time, the press has gained increasing freedom, as each ideological faction vies for public visibility and influence. However, there exists an unspoken understanding among media outlets about certain topics deemed unsuitable for publication, underscoring an implicit code of self-censorship within the press.
At the apex of the Republic stands the President, currently Nihad Cemil Mentesheli, holding a position endowed with considerable constitutional authority and access to power. Simultaneously, the Prime Minister, currently Nikulay Papazoghlu, nominated by the ruling party's leader, assumes a role that, while ceremonial, possesses limited substantive authority in governance, primarily serving as an advisory figure.
Interestingly, despite its republican structure, Anatolia incorporates a titular monarch known as the Shah Veled, currently held by Osman VIII, who was elected on January 19, 2021. The Shah Veled conducted the Presidential swearing-in ceremonies, symbolizing a unique fusion of republican governance with symbolic monarchy within the Anatolian political landscape.
Executive powers are wielded by the President, while legislative authority resides in the unicameral parliament, known as the Meclis-i Âlı. Notably, Anatolia has been a pioneer in universal suffrage, granting voting rights to both genders since 1927, preceding most other nations. This unwavering commitment to universal suffrage ensures that every Anatolian citizen, upon turning 18, possesses the fundamental right to vote, a cornerstone of the country's democratic framework.
Political culture
The political culture in Anatolia reflects an active and engaged citizenry deeply involved in the electoral process. Unlike many Western countries, participation in elections is not just encouraged but mandatory in some regions. Failure to vote in the three significant elections—National Presidential, Gubernatorial, and Mayoral—can result in penalties in specific counties. This compulsory participation underscores the importance placed on civic responsibility and democratic engagement within Anatolia.
Additionally, citizens' interests are actively represented through various interest groups that convene regularly to offer counsel and guidance to the government on diverse matters. These advisory bodies play a crucial role in providing insights and recommendations on issues of varying significance, reflecting a collaborative approach between the populace and the governing authorities.
In recent decades, there has been a noticeable rise in anti-incumbency sentiments. It's become increasingly uncommon for a single party to secure a majority in consecutive elections. This trend has led to a scenario where elected officials, particularly ministers, are compelled to remain proactive and diligent in their governance to maintain public favor. The pressure to retain votes amid a competitive political landscape has stimulated an environment where elected representatives are driven to enhance their performance and cater to the needs and aspirations of the electorate.
The 2019 Parliamentary elections stand as a testament to the competitiveness of Anatolian politics, with the ruling party securing a slim lead over the leading opposition party by a margin of just 20 seats. This closely contested electoral outcome highlights the balanced nature of political representation within the Anatolian Parliament, fostering an environment where parties strive to garner support through effective governance and policies that resonate with the populace's aspirations.
Political parties
| Current Structure of the Meclis-i Âlı | |
|---|---|
| Structure | |
| Seats | 450 |
 | |
Political groups |
Government (185)
Opposition (265) |
Ever since the inception of the Republic, Anatolia has embraced a political landscape founded on a robust multi-party system. This commitment to pluralism and diverse political representation has been a consistent hallmark of Anatolian governance. The most recent parliamentary election held on May 15, 2019, underscored this commitment, with the Tradition and Peace Party (SAF) emerging victorious by securing an impressive 40% of the total vote share. The triumph led to the election of Nihad Cemil Mentesheli as the President of the Republic.
Presently, Anatolia's political fabric is prominently shaped by several influential parties. The Tradition and Peace Party (SAF), characterized by its conservative ideology and emphasis on traditional values, holds a significant sway over the political landscape. Alongside SAF, socialist principles find expression through the Socialist Party of Anatolia (İFA), which champions social justice and equity within the Republic. Furthermore, the republican Accord and Progress Party (İTF) stands as a pivotal force, advocating for progressive policies aimed at fostering harmony and advancement within Anatolia.
The coexistence of these diverse ideologies and perspectives showcases the rich tapestry of political thought and pluralistic ideals in Anatolia. The interactions, debates, and policy discussions among these parties contribute to the dynamic and vibrant nature of the Republic's political discourse, shaping the direction and ethos of governance in contemporary Anatolia.
Administrative divisions
The Republic has a federal structure and is considered to be a union of states (eyalet; pl. eyaletler), which are ruled by Chief governors (başmudîr; pl. başmudîrler), who are appointed by the Vice President. There are 3 constituent states in the Republic. These are the states of Thrace, Capital Territory (Payitaht) and Anatolia.
These states are divided into provinces (vilayet; pl. vilayetler); there are 12 such provinces. Each province is ruled by a Provincial governor (vâli; pl. vâliler), who is chosen by the people in the Provincial elections.
The 12 Provinces are listed below:
- Vilayet of Edirne- Sanjaks of Edirne, Kirklareli, Tekirdag, Gallipoli (4)
- Vilayet of Istanbul (Konstantiniye)- Sanjaks of Istanbul East (üsküdar), Istanbul West and Izmid (3)
- Vilayet of Archipelago- Sanjaks of Biga and other Islands (2)
- Vilayet of Bursa- Sanjaks of Karesi, Bursa, Ertugrul, Eskishehir and Karahisar-i Sahib (5)
- Vilayet of Aydin- Sanjaks of Izmir, Saruhan, Aydin, Denizli and Menteshe (5)
- Vilayet of Konya- Sanjaks of Nige, Konya, Izbarta, Antalya, and Burdur (5)
- Vilayet of Adana- Sanjaks of Ijel, Mersin, Adana, Kozan and Jebel-i Berket (5)
- Vilayet of Engürü- Sanjaks of Engürü, Kirger, Kangeri and Yozgat (4)
- Vilayet of Kastamonu- Sanjaks of Kastamonu, Kangeri, Bolu and Sinob (4)
- Vilayet of Sivas- Sanjaks of Sivas, Tokat, Amasya and Karahisar, Malatya (4)
- Vilayet of Trabzon- Sanjaks of Trabzon, Samsun, Gümüshhane and Lazistan-i Garb (5)
- Vilayet of Erzincan- Sanjak of Erzincan (1)
The provinces are further divided into districts (sancak; pl. sancaklar) which are governed by the District officers (sancakdâr; pl. sancakdârlar), who are chosen by the Provincial governors. There are 47 districts in the Republic.
Each of these districts are further divided into cities (şehir; pl. şehirler), suburbs (nâhiye; pl. nâhiyeler), areas (mıntıka; pl. mıntıkalar) and localities (mahalle, pl. mahalleler).
Out of these 43 districts, Istanbul is the most populous at 15,840,900, Çankırı least at 196,515; Konya is the largest at 38,260 km², while Yalova is the smallest at 850 km².
Geography
Located in Southeastern Europe and Southwestern Asia, the Anatolian Republic consists of a mountainous mainland speckled with islands in its maritime territory. The Republic is located at the crossroads of Africa, Asia and Europe. The country lies approximately between latitudes 35°N and 43°N, and longtitudes 25°E and 38°E. The Republic covers 546,883.64 square kilometers (211,152.95 sq mi). The Republic is the world’s 49th-largest country in the world; smaller than Kenya and larger than mainland France. The country is surrounded by three seas: Aegean Sea, Black Sea and Sea of Marmara. The coasts open up to the Mediterranean sea. The extreme points are:
- North: Kofçaz, Kirklareli sancak
- South: Cape Anamur, Seyhan sancak
- East: Uzunpınar, Kayseri sancak
- West: Babakale, Kale-i Sultani sancak
The Mount Erciyes (3,917 meters) is the highest mountain in the Republic.
Geology
Earthquake
Climate
According to the Köppen climate classification, the climate varies from Mediterranean climate (Csa) in the West to Cold semi-arid climates (BSk) in the middle to Humid continental climate (Dfb, Dsb) in the East.
Climate change
Biodiversity
The Republic includes portions of two biodiversity hotspots: the Mediterranean Basin and the Irano-Anatolian region. bout 1500 species of vertebrates have been recorded in the country and around 19,000 species of invertebrate. There are about 11,000 species of flowering plants; some of the world's staple crops were first cultivated in this area, and many of their wild relatives are still found here. Due to its location, the country is used by migratory birds as a resting point.
Nature
Islands
This is a list of islands of Anatolian Republic. In the parentheses following the name of the island is the other/official name of the island. There are around 98 officially recognised islands and islets in the country.
Government
Foreign relations
Anatolian Republic's foreign policy is conducted through the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and its head, the Minister for Foreign Affairs, currently İbrahim Çoban. Officially, the main aims of the Ministry are to represent the Anatolian Republic before other states and international organizations; safeguard the interests of the state and its citizens abroad; promote Anatolian culture; foster closer relations with its allies; and encourage international cooperation.
Additionally, due to its political and geographical proximity to Europe, Asia, the Middle East and Africa, the Anatolian Republic is a country of significant geostrategic importance, which it has leveraged to develop a regional policy to help promote peace and stability in the Balkans, the Mediterranean, and the Middle East. This has accorded the country middle power status in global affairs.
The Republic is a member of numerous international organizations, including the Central Treaty Organization, the League of Nations and an applicant to the European Community.
The country shares extremsly good ties with Georgia, with whom it has an open border with. The country also shares good ties with most of its neighbours, with the exception of Azerbaijan.
Due to TRC's foreign funding by Italy and its allies; Anatolia, Greece and Bulgaria began working together to fight the Thracian crisis, and have improved the relations with each other.
After the Great War, the country has been a pioneer of the Non-aligned movement and has considerably improved relations with Germany and United Kingdom, whom it had fought against earlier.
The relations with Azerbaijan, Italy and Persia remain tense inspite of several rounds of mediation.
The Caucasus Railways (Turkish: Kafkasya Demiryolu) runs from Northern Waynakhia and connects Anatolia to Awaristan, Georgia, Dagestan, Armenia and Waynakhia.
Military
Law
Judiciary
A step towards modern judiciary was taken in 1927 when the coup introduced a triumvirate: the Sultan, the President and the Sheikh-ul-Islam.
The Sheikh was representative of the judiciary; the President was the representative of the executive while the Sultan was the representative of the legislative. The Sultan was removed from the triangle later on.
Later, the Judiciary was refined to a council of jurists: half of whom came from shariah schools and schools of constitutional law. This arrangement remains as such today.
Due to this assortment of judges, it is harder for the executive to have considerable control over the judiciary. Though, the judiciary is independent of has at times created political turmoil in cases of no consensus.
Today, each eyalet has its version of the Supreme Court, the High Court. Each vilayet has a provincial court. Each sancak has a district court. Some cities have a special Mayoral court for local matters.
Economy
Natural gas
Agriculture and natural resources
Demographics
Ethnic groups
The Turkish people form the majority of the country's population at 44.6 million people (68%). It is believed that many other ethnic groups have been labelled as Turkish, hence, the multitude.
The Greek people form the single largest minority group with 14 million people (22.4%).
The Kurdish people at 1.7 million people (2.6%) are mostly concentrated in the border areas.
Jews comprise almost half a million people (1%) of the population.
Various other groups like the Bulgarians, Romas and Armenians comprise the remaining 6% of the population.
Functional urban areas
Language
Turkish and Greek are the official languages of the country. Turkish can be used as a language for the daily life of the citizenry and is a lingua franca in the country. While Greek is primarily used by Greeks concentrated in Thrace and Western portions of Anatolia.
Kurdish, Hebrew, Armenian, Circassian, Georgian, Gagauz, Arabic, Bulgarian are spoken in varying degrees.
Out of the 24 stanzas of the National anthem, 15 are Turkish and 9 are Greek. The colloquial name of the anthem itself from Greek.
Religion
Education
The roots of education within the Anatolian Republic stretch back to ancient times, with historical foundations in both the Byzantine era and the Seljuk period. During the Byzantine era, a rudimentary form of education existed, while the concept of formal schooling emerged more prominently during the Seljuk period. This period witnessed the establishment of numerous schools focused on teaching jurists and scholars, and nurturing intellectual and religious pursuits.
The modernization of the education system gained momentum during the Tanzimat period, marking a transformative era in Anatolian education. The Tanzimat reforms introduced changes that laid the groundwork for the contemporary education system prevalent today.
Presently, the Ministry of Education plays a pivotal role in administering the national education system. The Council for Education, a regulatory body, holds significant responsibility for shaping the educational landscape. Its duties encompass setting the curriculum, conducting annual assessments, regulating interactions among schools, teachers, students, and parents, and establishing national standards and targets. These standards are crucial benchmarks that educational institutions and stakeholders are required to meet, ensuring a consistent and high-quality education across the country.
Healthcare
The Republic has universal health care. The system is mixed, combining a national health service with nationwide health insurance.
In 2012, there were 804 hospitals with 186,000 beds. However, as of 2016, there were 744 public hospitals, of which 636 general hospitals and 108 specialised hospitals with a total capacity of 180,000 beds.
Transport
Road transport
Public transport
Cycling
Water transport
Air transport
Communications
The oldest form of communication in the Anatolian Republic is by sending letters. The Republic has several post offices (Postahane or Posta defteri).
The telegraph was popular in the 20th century and was written in a special code called Moritz code, created by Hans Moritz.
Telephones were invented by the Sierran inventor Alexander Bramble in TBD. Five years later, the Republic received its first telephone (now displayed at the Pera Museum). Mobile phones were introduced in TBD.
With the spread of social media, communication and global connectivity has increased, and so has the increased risk of online fraud.
There also exists a small community of people who communicate via the Bird Language, a language that is solely made up of whistles and is recognised by the LNESCO.
The famous worldwide search engine company Cüstücu! is based and was founded in the Anatolian Republic. It has since radiated to all parts of the world. The company still runs several hackathons and coding lessons for young programmers. A recently devised programme "U CODE, WE HIRE" is run annually which provides employment opportunities to the most outstanding coders in the Republic and abroad.
Culture
The Republic has a very diverse culture which is a rich mix of Turkic, Hellenic, Ottoman, Kurd, Armenian and Arab cultures.
Conservatism
The culture of Anatolia Republic is highly diverse, conservative and influenced by religion. Religion plays a major role in the society, and laws of the country reflect it. However, the Republic has a non-interference policy on matters concerning religion.
Both Muslims and Orthodox citizens share certain practices, rituals and customs.
The observance of headscarves and veils is a norm in most parts of the Republic irrespective of the religious affiliation. Women who observe the practice are widely considered pious and modest. The range extends from simple shawls, to hijab (hicab), chador (çadır), niqab (nikab) and perde.
Among males, it has been tradition to keep beards.
Keeping in line with Islamic, Jewish and some Orthodox traditions, upon birth male children undergo circumcision (sünnet-ı hitan).
Art, architecture and philosophy
Visual Arts
The Anatolian Republic boasts a rich legacy in visual arts, stemming from its diverse historical influences. The early Ottoman paintings, exemplified by the works of Matrakçı Nasuh Efendi portraying Suleiman The Magnificient's campaigns against the Kingdom of Hungary, stand as a testament to this artistic heritage. However, it was the groundbreaking contributions of Osman Hamdi that laid the foundation for modern art in Anatolia. His masterpiece, "The Tortoise Trainer," displayed at the Pera Museum, is an iconic representation of this era's artistic evolution, reflecting a blend of traditional and contemporary influences.
Carpet weaving
Carpet weaving in Anatolia traces its origins to the ancient Turkic era, highlighting a craft deeply intertwined with the region's cultural heritage. This tradition exhibits significant Persian influences in its designs and techniques. Anatolian carpets are revered globally for their exquisite craftsmanship and serve as a symbol of the country's rich cultural identity. Moreover, they hold immense economic importance, being a prominent export commodity that showcases Anatolia's artistic mastery and craftsmanship.
Carpet weaving industry is totally dominated both by women weavers and members of Ahi guilds. Much of women workforce of the Republic is involved in the weaving industry (20%).
Calligraphy
The tradition of calligraphy holds immense significance in Anatolian culture, dating back to the Seljuk era. Notably, the Ottomans contributed to calligraphic artistry by introducing the distinctive Divani style. Hattathanes, dedicated centers for calligraphy education, were established across major Anatolian cities, fostering the learning and practice of this revered art form. Calligraphy remains a cherished cultural heritage, reflecting the region's artistic finesse and its deep-rooted connection to Islamic art and expression.
Shadow plays
Anatolia's cultural landscape is enriched by the tradition of shadow plays, notably the renowned Karagöz and Hacivad. Originating during the Ottoman era, these captivating performances became a cultural hallmark, captivating audiences with their humorous and insightful narratives. The influence of Karagöz and Hacivad extended beyond Anatolia, radiating into the Balkans and leaving an indelible mark on the broader cultural fabric of the region. These shadow plays remain a cherished part of Anatolia's performing arts legacy, embodying its vibrant storytelling traditions.
Anatolian value system
The Republic has been influenced by the Hanafi and Sufi doctrine in Sunni Islam. This is reflected in the country's sufistic culture. There are Tekkes built for Sufi Orders amongst whom: Naqshbandis, Qadris and Shadhilis are the most practised. These were given preference by the Sultans and rose to prominence in their reigns. The most popular sufi remains Mevlana Rumi whose shrine in Konya is visited to this day by thousands of people. There are semas and mehfils that take place weekly or at times of religious importance. Zikir, Hamd and Neshids are performed in these semas.
The Anatolians are a value and moral-oriented people. They tend to place morals on a higher ground. Even smoking and swearing are seen in bad light by the locals. Lying is frowned upon and backbiting is considered offensive.
Anatolians and ecology
Anatolian cuisine
Anatolian cuisine is rich in its heritage, influenced by the Ottoman, Byzantine, Mediterranean and Levantine cuisine.
- Ispanaklı Pita, derives its origin from fusion of Turkish börek and Greek spanakopita. It is a pastry widely eaten in the city of Istanbul and Thrace.
- Anatolian delight, sweet widely consumed and popular internationally.
- Shawarma or Döner, has Levantine origin.
- Dolma/Dolmas
- Moussaka/Musakka
- Külaş çorbe, analogous to Hungarian goulash.
- Ayran drink
Anatolian literature
Sports
Pottery, Archery, Horse riding, Wrestling and Sword fighting are common cultural sports in the country. The aim of these was to develop sound and healthy bodies.
In modern times, Football has gained immense popularity, with the establishment of several clubs and local stadiums (Istadya pl. Istadyalar). The Anatolian Football Team (AAT) represents the country internationally.
The country was selected to host the 2020 Summer Olympics, which was its first.
Media
Cinema
Films
Programmes
Holidays
| Date | English name | Local name | Remarks |
|---|---|---|---|
| 23 July | Republic Day | Yevm-i Cumhuriyet | |
| 5 March | Anatolia Day | Yevm-i Anadolu | |
| 20 December | Thrace Day | Yevm-i Rumeli |
Imperial heritage
International rankings
See also
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This page uses material from the Wikipedia page Turkey, which is released under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License (view authors). |