Italian Wars (Merveilles des Morte)
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 Duchy of Habsburg |
File:Apostolic hungary 30891.png Hungary
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Frederick I † | File:Apostolic hungary 30891.png Oliver I | ||||
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The Italian Wars, also known as the Great Wars of Italy, were a series of wars fought primarily in the Italian Peninsula during the Renaissance. The Italian peninsula, while economically advanced, was politically divided among several states, and became the main battleground for European supremacy. The conflicts involved the major powers of Europe, although ostensibly was a struggle between the four major foreign powers mostly invested in the peninsula: France, Spain, Hungary, and the Byzantine Empire. These states fought against each other and against the Italian states themselves, most notably the Papal States, with an ever shifting series of alliances and coalitions being made to prevent no one state from dominating the peninsula in its entirety.
During the Lenzburg-Premyslid War in the late 1480s, the Kingdom of Spain sought to advance its empire in Italy, having already acquired the Kingdom of Naples and Genoa previously, and Spain invaded Bohemian-aligned Florence in support of the Swiss Confederacy. Spain was however forced to withdraw from Florence and was stripped of Genoa by the Modena-led League of Como in 1503, which later also defended Venice against a Byzantine attack.
War resumed during the reign of William II of France, who fought extensively with the Papal States with backing from their former enemies the Spanish. The reign of Jaromir I as king of both Bohemia and France saw the beginning of an Imperial-French alliance, while in 1544 the Byzantine Empire invaded the city of Trieste, successfully defending the city against the League of Venice. During the Northern Schism in the Catholic church, in which Henry X aligned with the Bremen Papacy, Pope Leo XII installed antiking Leopold II from the Duchy of Habsburg, and aligned with Hungary to have Henry deposed, eventually beginning the War of the Three Henrys. The death of Leopold II fractured the Hungarian-Habsburg alliance, with Leopold's son Frederick fighting against the Hungarians and partitioning Milan from the Duchy of Modena.
Wars
War of the Three Henrys
As the imperial civil war between Henry X and Leopold II was ongoing, the Catholic coup in Prague had led to a threeway civil war in Bohemia, split along religious lines. Henry X, now forced to flee the capital, represented the "Imperialists", and sought pragmatic cooperation among the religious communities. Henry the Pious represented a strong return to Catholicism, and cooperation with Austria and Leopold II, while Henry the Protector sought to promote Bohemia's conversion to Jungism. The sudden death of Leopold II in January 1552 changed the course of the war, as Leopold's powerbase, and thus the main supporters of the Catholic faction in Bohemia, now fought among themselves. Frederick III of Austria sought the imperial throne, over Henry the Pious or Frederick von Habsburg. A month later Pope Leo XII also died, while his successor Gregory XIV formally supported Henry the Pious. This was deemed by Frederick III as a betrayal, and in April his relative Olivér I of Hungary launched an invasion of Italy.
The Pope quickly formed a coalition of Italian states to aid in the repulsion of the Hungarians known as the League of Venice. The newly crowned Duke Frederick of Habsburg remained loyal to the Roman papacy, and would counter the Austrian-Hungary claim to the throne. After consolidating control over Swabia, he would march into northern Italy in support of the coalition. While the Hungarians quickly overran Aquileia, Count Engelbert V of Gorizia would continue to resist the Hungarians, becoming a prominent and feared commander. Despite the invasion pushing into Italy, Henry the Pious sought to use the Italian forces he had gathered to quickly take Bohemia before aiding the Pope directly. He would capture southern Bohemia, but in an attempt to capture the Hussite stronghold of Tábor, he would be defeated and forced to flee across the border to Passau. After the Battle of Freyung in September, he next fled to Austria, retaining only a fraction of his original army.
In August Catholic nobleman Jan Ptáček would usurp command of Imperial forces in Bohemia, ordering a purge of several dissenters in the capital. Although not in cooperation with Henry X, who had since fled, Ptáček acted as a de facto head of his military, and began a successful campaign in the surrounding countryside. 5,500 Jungist forces under Henry the Protector, including some 3,000 soldiers from Brandenburg, 1,000 soldiers from Saxony, and 1,500 rebelling peasants, would encounter Ptáček's army of some 13,000 soldiers on 19 December 1552. In the ensuing Battle of Kladen, Henry the Protector would win an unprecedented victory, suffering some 1,000 casualties, compared to the Catholic's 8,500, including Ptáček himself. The battle would see the lose of numerous Catholic nobles and knights, as well as the capture of dozens more. With this battle having been won, Henry would march on Prague victorious.
In March 1553, while preparing for an Austrian-backed invasion to reclaim Bohemia, claimant to the throne Henry the Pious would be assassinated by one of his guards, in a move that was believed to have been orchestrated by Henry X. The reign of Henry the Protector would prove short as well, as in August he was murdered by a radical Catholic monk. This left Henry X as the last surviving claimant in the war, and he quickly began to march on Prague to assert his claim. However, weary of continued conflict, Henry X would formally convert away from Catholicism, which allowed him to enter Prague without further bloodshed. While the War of the Three Henrys concluded, the tangentially related Hungarian-led phase of the Italian Wars would continue.
Italian War of 1552-1556
Prior to 1552 an alliance had existed between the Árpáds of Austria and Hungary, the Duchy of Habsburg, and the Papal States under Leo XII. The Habsburgs had managed to seize control over the Upper Rhine and Alsace League, with Duke Leopold II being elected King of Germany with papal backing, while the alliance ensured a Catholic coup ousted Leopold's rival, Emperor Henry X, from the throne of Bohemia. However, the political situation rapidly deteriorated at the beginning of 1552, as Leopold II and Pope Leo XII both died. The Catholic faction became divided over who would be supported as Holy Roman Emperor. Henry the Pious, the Catholic claimant to the Kingdom of Bohemia in the War of the Three Henrys, who the alliance was attempting to install on the throne, was one such claimant. Likewise Frederick III of Austria, with Hungarian backing, sought the imperial election, while Leopold II's son, Frederick, also was a potential candidate.
With the election of Gregory XIV as Pope, he formally supported Henry the Pious, in the hopes of ensuring Bohemia fell back into the hands of Catholic rulers. Frederick III would feel betrayed by this, instead leading an invasion of northeast Italy, along with his relative Olivér I of Hungary. Hungarian forces overwhelmed the Pope's ally of Aquileia, defeating them at the Battle of Udine. In response the Pope would form a quick coalition of Italian states to repulse the Hungarians, known as the League of Venice. Wile the leaders of Aquileia fled, the young count Engelbert V of Gorizia would begin a guerrilla campaign against the numerically superior Hungarian occupiers, gaining renown as an unexpected commander of the Italian coalition. At the start of 1553, Englebert V would manage to ambush a numerically superior Austrian army at Levada, killing heir apparent Stephen of Austria, and routing the Austrian army. Despite this, the occupation of several major towns in the Republic of Venice by the Hungarians would force Venice to make peace and leave the coalition.
In April 1553 Hungarian forces began an invasion of Modena, crossing the border and defeating a Modena-Papal army at the Siege of Mantua. The newly crowned Duke Frederick of Habsburg remained loyal to the Roman papacy, and would counter the Austrian-Hungary claim to the throne. After consolidating control over Swabia, he would march into northern Italy in support of the coalition, and arrived in Milan soon after Mantua fell. In a plot to assassinate Frederick and the Duke of Modena, Frederick would survive while the Duke of Modena was killed. This allowed young prince and Hungarian-sympathetic Francesco III to ascend to the throne of Modean. Francesco would end resistance to the Hungarian invaders, which Frederick of Habsburg refused to accept. Instead with the backing of many of the nation's nobility, he would establish the Duchy of Milan under his guidance.
Republican rebels in Modena would look to Frederick of Habsburg for assistance, while the exiled Francesco III joined the Hungarian army near Mantua. Throughout 1554 the Hungarians chased Frederick across southern Milan and the northern territory of the Papal States. In 1555 the decisive Battle of Meldola ended Hungary's ambitions of marching on Rome. Later that year they would withdraw from Modena and Mantua, albeit with a partially friendly government installed in the latter. The repulsion of Hungary from Italy seemed all but certain, and Frederick launched an invasion of Austrian-allied Trento hoping to force Hungarian garrisons out of Aquileia.
Engelbert V launched a campaign against the Hungarians as a result, recapturing much of Aquileia. Frederick advanced into the region, but at the Battle of Adria in 1556, would be killed in battle. With the leader of the alliance against Hungary dead, peace would be made. Hungary would withdraw from the Lombardy region completely, but retained control over Aquileia and Gorizia.
Milanese Civil War
Following the death of hegemon Frederick von Habsburg in Milan, the fledgling country entered a period of instability. The Duchy of Milan was formally claimed by Francesco III of Modena, although this was wildly unpopular among the people of Milan. Other claimants arose, notably Cosimo I de' Medici, whose family had previously ruled as doges in Milan for a brief period. Although Frederick von Habsburg had acted as de facto ruler and lord protector, he left open the possibility of a monarch returning to Milan and took up the role of regent. To this end he had orchestrated a number of marriage alliances with various Milanese nobles, and it was theorized that someone with key ties to the Habsburgs would be expected to succeed. Guglielmo Gonzaga, whose family had historically ruled Mantua before being ousted, and had ties across the old Duchy of Modena, was one such candidate who was wed to Frederick’s daughter Matilda. After Frederick departed on his ill-fated campaign against Hungary, Guglielmo was appointed one of many important ministers overseeing Milan in Frederick’s absence, and on 23 April he postured himself as de facto ruler of the city after having several of his rivals arrested.
Despite Milan’s government drifting toward monarchism, many of the nation's nobles and intellectuals favored a republic. Groups such as the College of Jurisprudence in Pavia launched a propaganda campaign painting the old Milanese republic as a golden age for the state. This proposal also became supported by the merchant class, who hoped to emulate the wealth of the Republic of Venice. A popular uprising broke out in the city of Milan, compelling many of Guglielmo’s captains and administrators to pledge allegiance to a republic. Seeing the writing on the walls, Guglielmo shifted his position and declared support for a republic, with himself as one of the republic’s first defenders. He also painted one of his former allies and monarchists, Pietro Trivulzio, as working in a conspiracy with Florence, in the hopes of rallying attention toward them instead of himself. The scheme seemingly worked as the Trivulzio family was forced to flee. Soon after a republic was declared in the Palace of the Commune, nicknamed the Insubrian Republic, and twelve “Defenders of Liberty” were elected to govern the state.
While the political instability in Milan continued, a Florentine army under Ferdinando de' Medici was dispatched across the border, capturing the city of Massa. The Modenans also invaded westward with Hungarian support, laying siege to the city of Brescia in early 1557. The Milanian government became dominated by an emergency triumvirate which included Guglielmo Gonzaga, which managed to rally support toward repulsing Modena’s invasion. The Battle of Chiari in February halted the advance toward Milan itself, prolonging the republic. Although hesitant to fully commit to the war at first, Hungary supported the election of a favorable candidate in the Bishopric of Trento, and supported a rebellion in Sondrio, which disrupted the Habsburg alliances in northern Italy. With Modenan support the city of Parma was captured later in the year, declaring the Duchy of Parma under an Arpad puppet duke. A truce at the end of the year halted hostilities, and saw Milan secure Brescia and the areas north of Parma. However, the Insubrian Republic was recognized as legitimate, and both the Medicis and Modenans relinquished their claims.
War of the League of Rimini
Fortunes changed for the Hungarians with the death of Pope Gregory XIV in late 1557. His replacement would be Nicholas VI, a Venetian, who was strongly against Hungarian expansion across northern Italy. With his home of Venice now essentially estranged by Hungarian puppet states, the Pope began organizing a coalition of states known as the League of Rimini to oppose further Hungarian expansion. The alliance would formally consist of Venice, Ferrara, Habsburg, Milan, the Swiss Confederacy, and Spain, while the Byzantine Empire was attracted to attack Hungary as a co-belligerent in exchange for recognition of Byzantine Trieste and the prospect of further expansion on the Adriatic coast. In early 1558 an army under the command of the Duke of Urbino crossed into Modena, beginning the war. A siege at Bologna began, but before Modena could raise a large enough army to lift the siege, coalition forces discovered a disenfranchised infantry captain within the city was willing to open the gates of the town, allowing Venetian and Papal soldiers to enter Bologna on 8 April.
The Venetians launched a series of naval attacks against the coastal cities of Hungarian Italy, prompting the deposed Engelbert V of Gorizia to take up arms as well. Engelbert helped to spark a local rebellion, causing locals to flock to his banner. Soon after the Gorizian-Venetian army captured Ceneda and various territories in the south of Aquileia, although not the titular city itself. Hungary responded by quickly raising an army of some 12,000 Hungarian soldiers, 2,000 Austrians, and some 5,000 Italian mercenaries and marching against the Venetians, securing an important victory at the Battle of Aviano that more or less reversed Venice’s advances back to the border. While the Hungarians attempted to lay siege to Treviso, a separate contingent passed into northern Italy via Trento and came to the aid of Modena. A third attack was launched against Venetian possessions in Croatia, although this was repulsed and the Venetian navy subsequently raided cities such as Fiume and imposed a blockade further along the coast.
In the summer of 1558 the Byzantine Empire launched an invasion of Hungary proper, drawing away what remained of the Hungarian army. The Siege of Treviso would be lifted in July after being costly for both sides, and Hungary instead launched a Siege of Trieste in August, which turned into another stalemate. Spanish soldiers committed to the conflict in September and crossed into central Italy with an army approximately 20,000 strong. The city of Modena itself was besieged, forcing Francesco III to flee. The remaining citizens of Modena raised some 8,000 militia as well as various mercenaries and other remnants from Bologna, although the defenders were hampered by a lack of artillery. Elsewhere from Mantua the Modenan government managed to attract some aid from Genoa, who opposed Spanish influence in Italy, and Savoy, who claimed territory held by the Byzantine ally of Montferrat.
Despite the early successes of the League of Rimini, the Insubrian Republic was unable to capitalize further due to the presence of Austrian soldiers passing into northern Milan from Sondrio. Peace was negotiated easily with the Duchy of Habsburg after the Duchy of Austria threatened its possessions in eastern Swabia. Without the strong leadership of Frederick I, whose wars had depleted Habsburg resources, the underage Leopold III and his ministers were compelled to make peace before they could really commit to the League of Rimini, unexpectedly weakening the Milanese flank and allowing the Austrians to make such sweeping advances. The city of Lecco was captured and the Austrians now sat at the doorstep of Milan. Forces on the border of Modena were withdrawn and brought back toward the north, leaving only a small force in the south to contend with the Genoans. The Milanese would also accept a truce with the Duchy of Parma, which feared it was at risk should Modena fall. The Parmans would subsequently switch sides the following year.
The Milanese would elect to take the field of battle in an effort to repulse the Austrians, with elected-noble Vitaliano Borromeo taking the lead of the army. At the Battle of Merate in August 1558 the Milanese were victorious, forcing the Austrian army back. Additionally in September the Venetians captured Verona and began to apply pressure to the city of Mantua, while large portions of Aquileia were declared for Engelbert of Gorizia. While preparing to mount a counteroffensive toward the end of the year, Francesco III of Modena died of disease while near Mantua, causing a succession crisis. In April 1559 the city of Modena was captured by the Spanish, leaving the Modenans to the city of Mantua and the area around it. Also in 1559 Pope Nicholas VI died and was succeeded by Benedict XII from Spain, who sanctioned a Spanish occupation in Modena.
The war in Italy would not formally conclude until early 1560 with the Treaty of Rome. The peace saw Hungary relinquish most of its territories or allies in northeast Italy; Aquileia was ceded to Engelbert V of Gorizia, the Venetian conquests including Verona and Ceneda were confirmed, Krain had peacefully fell into the Austrian realm through inheritance which the King of Hungary did not dispute. Only Sondino, Mantua, and a handful of enclave territories around Trento remained loyal to or part of the Hungarian domain. Minor territory was ceded to Savoy and Genoa, the former receiving the city of Asti. The Insubrian Republic seized lands around Lake Garda and from western Modena, while Modena proper controversially continued to be held by the Spanish. This would eventually lead to a renewed series of wars between Spain and France in the coming years.
Italian War of 1564-1572
The Treaty of Rome stood for the next four years, during which time the Spanish continued to grow their influence once more in northern Italy. The Spanish directly occupied Modena with Papal backing, leading to states such as Florence and Genoa seeking French protection in case of further Spanish expansion. In 1564 Spain supported the Insubrian Republic’s invasion of Florence, prompting a French invasion of Italy. Less than a year into the war the unexpected death of Charles IV and the succession of his young son as Henry III derailed French war efforts, allowing Spain to claim victory over Florence by the end of the year.
Spain laid claim to Florence, soaring relations with the Insubrian Republic and other Italian powers. The Papacy left the Spanish alliance and created a new coalition along with Venice, which sought to contain the Spanish. The Insubrian Republic effectively became a Spanish puppet after a corrupt election in 1566, later allowing French chief minister René de l'Hôpital to persuade the Florentine-born military commander of Milan, Piero Strozzi, to defect in exchange for French recognition of his rule over a reformed Duchy of Milan. Under the leadership of Strozzi and Charles Amadeus of Savoy, the Italian alliance managed to capture Milan in 1568. l'Hôpital also renewed the controversial Franco-Abbasid alliance, leading to a Muslim naval campaign and a disastrous Spanish attempt to seize Algiers. The Franco-Spanish theatre in southern France, the latter eventually joined by Arles, ended inconclusively, as did an attempted English attack in the Lowlands. The war would conclude with a series of treaties in 1572, which saw the Spanish repulsed from Milan and the ascension of the Strozzi dynasty.
Footnotes
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